CPCWiki - THE Amstrad CPC encyclopedia! - User contributions [en]

Locomotive BASIC

2012-09-19T19:57:27Z

Hal 6128: /* Command list */

For other BASIC language versions see the [[:Category:BASIC]]

[[Image:Screenshots-CPC_Start_screen.jpg|thumb|CPC Start Screen showing Locomotive copyright and BASIC version]]

Locomotive BASIC was a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_language BASIC] interpreter for the Amstrad CPC range of computers.

It was availlable directly from in-built ROMs on [[CPC old generation]] and on the [[Plus System Cartridge]] for the [[Plus]] range.

== Description ==

Locomotive BASIC, was one of the best and fastest BASIC implementations of the era. The language benefited both from a clean, well-thought out implementation of the core language by Locomotive, and by the excellent [[firmware]] of the CPC, which lent most of its advanced features to the BASIC.

Unlike the competing Commodore 64, it featured a comprehensive graphic capabilities with its PLOT, DRAW, PAPER, INK, PEN, BORDER and (in BASIC 1.1) FILL commands. It had extensive sound commands, granting control of the [[AY-3-8912]] via the firmware's volume and tone envelope system. With the SOUND command, you could select channels, set envelopes, pitch, noise and volume. That was something unmatched by other computers of that era.

Also there was simple interface for memory management, with MEMORY and LOAD commands. The latter allowed for loading of raw screen data, thus providing easy picture showing. Both through this (combined with CALL, PEEK and POKE) and the firmware's [[RSX]] system, it was easy to mix BASIC and assembly code, thereby speeding up programs by coding the slowest parts directly in machine code. Many successful programs, including games such as [[Radzone]] and applications such as [[PowerPage]], made use of this technique.

With DEF FN, ON variable GOTO and ON variable GOSUB, Locomotive BASIC provided the rudiments of "structured programming", though nowhere near the extent of the PROCedures of [[BBC Basic]].

All in all, if you compare BASIC interpreters of that era, the Locomotive's seems to be the best 'all-rounder' regarding the combination of speed and complexity, and still some of its features were unmatched by others.

If you are interested in more information about the different versions of the CPC's BASIC and the technical details, you can have a look at the article "[[Technical information about Locomotive BASIC]]".

== History ==

The CPC implementation of Locomotive BASIC was developed directly from [[Locomotive Software]]'s existing Z80 BASIC. The existence of this is cited as one of the reasons Locomotive requested that [[Amstrad]] change the CPC's processor from a 6502 to a [[Z80]].

The 464 shipped with BASIC 1.0 on ROM.

The language was revised and debugged for the 664, 6128 and Plus machines to become BASIC 1.1. Changes were minor but significant for the programmer, and included:

* DEC$ bug removed (in BASIC 1.0, it required two opening brackets and was undocumented)
* Better handling of string arguments to RSXs (|DIR,"*.BAS" rather than a$="*.BAS":|DIR,@a$)
* DATA statements can appear anywhere within a line; in BASIC 1.0, they had to be at the end of a line
* FILL command (fill area with solid colour)
* COPYCHR$ function (fetch character from screen)
* Better garbage collection
* Some number-handling bugs removed (e.g. in FOR loops with negative start/end values)
* FRAME (CALL &BD19)
* Extra, optional 'plotting mode' parameter for DRAW/PLOT commands (supported only through control codes on BASIC 1.0)
* GRAPHICS PAPER, GRAPHICS PEN commands
* ON BREAK CONT (disable ESCape)
* CLEAR INPUT (flush keyboard buffer)
* The AUTO command show the whole line if it exist, it only printed a * on the 464

Some parts of 'BASIC' were actually housed in the firmware ROM, but were not officially accessible to other programs. This included the line editor.

The 'pure BASIC' parts of Locomotive BASIC - i.e. those not concerned with CPC-specific firmware and hardware features - were upgraded to become Mallard BASIC, the CP/M language shipped with the [[PCW]]. This also featured exceptionally advanced random-access file handling, a feature missing from the CPC.

== Command list ==

=== Commands and operators ===

==== <code>AFTER ‹time delay›[,‹timer number›] GOSUB ‹line number› </code>====
: Waits for ‹time delay›/50 seconds and then jumps NON-RECURRING to the subroutine at ‹line number› (see also <code>"EVERY i[,t] GOSUB line"</code>).

==== <code>AUTO [‹line number›][,‹increment›] </code>====
: Automatically generates line numbers starting at ‹line number› with ‹increment› after each entered line number. Use '''[ESC]''' to leave AUTO mode. Default values for ‹line number› and ‹increment› are 10.

: Example:
<pre>AUTO 100,5 :REM generates line numbers 100, 105, 110...</pre>

==== <code>BORDER ‹colour›[,‹colour›] </code>====
: Changes the colour of the border. If the second argument is supplied the border flashes between the two colours.

==== <code>CALL ‹address expression›[,‹list of: parameter›] </code>====
: Allows a machine code routine to be called by BASIC. Variables, string values and constants can be passed to the routine. Values of any supported type can be passed back by supplying a variable with <code>@</code> in front of it. This passes the address of the variable to the routine although it doesn't implicitly know the data type.
: Example:
<pre>CALL 0 :REM resets the computer completely</pre>

==== <code>CAT</code> ====
: Displays the names of the files on the tape or disc. Tape files are displayed in the order they are encountered. Disc files are sorted alphabetically by ACSII code. Only files matching the current user are displayed. Files marked as system are not displayed.
: Examples:
<pre>CAT :REM lists all disc files in alpha-numeric (ASCII) order</pre>

<pre>|TAPE :CAT :REM lists names of all tape files in their storage order</pre>

==== <code>CHAIN ‹file name›[,‹line number expression›] </code>====

:Enables the specified program to be loaded and RUN automatically. If the optional parameter ‹line number expression› is specified, the program execution will commence from that line.

==== <code>CHAIN MERGE ‹file name›[,‹line number expression› | [,[‹line number expression›],DELETE ‹line number range›]] </code>====

:Loads the specified program from tape or disc, merges it into the program in memory, and starts execution of the merged program. The parameter <code>DELETE</code> ‹line number range› is used to delete part of the original program before running it, if required.

==== <code>CLEAR</code> ====
: Clears all variables from memory, leaving the program in memory unchanged. All open files are abandoned.
: The command clear inside a subroutine (<code>GOSUB</code>... <code>RETURN</code>) will also clear the "stack pointer" address of the gosub heap. That means that a RETURN won't work and a GOTO has to be used instead.

==== <code>CLG [‹masked ink›] </code>====
: Clears the graphics screen to colour specified by <code>‹masked ink›</code>. If parameter <code>‹masked ink›</code> is not specified then the graphics screen is cleared to the colour specified by the GRAPHICS PAPER statement.

==== <code>CLOSEIN</code> ====
: Closes any input file (tape or disc).

==== <code>CLOSEOUT</code> ====
: Closes any output file (tape or disc).

==== <code>CLS [#‹stream expression›]</code>====
: Clears the window specified by ‹stream expression›. If ‹stream expression› is omitted it defaults to #0 (usually the whole screen). The text cursor of the stream is moved to the upper left corner.

==== <code>CONT</code> ====
: CONTinues program execution interrupted either by [ESC] [ESC] or as a result of STOP within a program. A program cannot be continued after being modified.

==== <code>CURSOR ‹expression› </code>====
: <code>‹expression›</code> must be either 0 or 1.

==== <code>DATA x1[,x2,x3...]</code> ====
: Defines a data ''section'' to be used by <tt>READ</tt> calls.
: Data values can be of any type (integer, real or string) as long as the corresponding <tt>READ</tt> calls use a variable of the right type.

:Example:

<pre>
10 DATA "Hello, world!", 42
20 READ message$:PRINT message$
30 READ answer:PRINT "The answer is:";answer
</pre>

:''See also:'' <tt>READ</tt>, <tt>RESTORE</tt>

==== <code>DEF</code> ====
: DEF means "define" and comes along with defining a function in case of DEF FN or defining variables in case of DEFREAL, DEFINT or DEFSTR.
: DEF FN must come before using the statement FN.
: DEF with a variable declaration should come before using a variable.
: (see also FN)

==== <code>DEFINT letter range</code> ====

: Forces all variables(s) starting with the specified letter(s) to be string variables. The s does not need to be added to DEFSTR variable names.

: Example:

<pre>
10 DEFSTR N - sets all variables starting with letter N as strings.
</pre>

==== <code>DEFREAL</code> ====
: Sets the default for variable(s) with the specified first letter(s) to a floating point figure. The letter range could be an inclusive range A-Z

==== <code>DEFSTR</code> ====

: Sets the default for variable(s) with the specified first letter(s) to integer. The letter range could be an inclusive range A-Z

: Example:

<pre>
10 DEFINT F,S ..... (or 10 DEFINT A-Z)
20 FIRST=111.11:SECOND=22.2
30 PRINT FIRST,SECOND - prints 111 22
</pre>

==== <code>DEG</code> ====
: Switch to degrees mode for trigonometric functions (<tt>SIN</tt>, <tt>COS</tt>...).
: ''See also:'' <tt>RAD</tt>

==== <code>DELETE [first line][-[last line]]</code> ====
: Deletes the current program completely (without arguments) or only the given line or line range. Even
: <code>DELETE -</code>
: is legal, it has the same effect as
: <code>DELETE</code>
: The lines specified do not have to exist, all lines matching the range will be deleted and having no matches does not cause an error.

==== <code>DI</code> ====
: Disables interrupts (but not[ESC]) until re-enabled by EI command or by RETURN at end of an interrupts service routine.
: This means that DI (if it's activated in a subroutine) is useful helping a low-priority-interrupt not to be stopped by a higher-priority-interrupt. RETURN then re-enable the interrupt without EI.

==== <code>DIM a[%|!|$](d1[,d2[,...]])</code> ====

: Creates array <code>a</code> with single or multiple dimensions. You may optionally specify integer (<code>%</code>), real (<code>!</code>) or string (<code>$</code>) type otherwise it defaults to the current type set for the first letter of the array name. <code>d1</code> is size of first dimension-1, <code>d2</code> is size of second dimension-1 and so on. <code>DIM x(10)</code> will create an array with 11 elements, <code>x(0)</code> is the first element, <code>x(10)</code> is the eleventh and last. You can specify as many dimensions as will fit on one 255 character line, which is a maximum of 125. Trying to create an array that already exists will generate an <code>Array already dimensioned</code> error. If an array is not specified by <code>DIM</code> before being accessed, each dimension value defaults to 10. The maximum dimensions that can be created this way is three.

==== <code>DRAW x,y[,i1 | ,[i1],i2]</code> ====

: Draws a line from the current cursor position to position x,y. i1 specifies colour, i2 is the drawing style.

<pre>
i2 = 0 normal colour i2 = 2 AND colour
i2 = 1 XOR colour i2 = 3 OR colour
</pre>

Example:

<code>
: CLG 2
: DRAW 500,400,0 :REM draws a line from 0,0 to 500,400
</code>

==== <code>DRAWR xr, yr, [[i1][,i2]]</code> ====

: Draws a line from current graphics cursor position to current cursor x position + xr, current cursor y position + yr. i1 and i2 as DRAW.
:Example:

<pre>
Move 200,200
DRAWR 100,100,0 - draws a line from 200,200 to 300,300
</pre>

==== <code>EDIT line</code> ====
: Copies one program line to screen in edition mode.

==== <code>EI</code> ====
: Enable interrupts which have been disabled by DI

==== <code>END</code> ====
: Indicates end of program

==== <code>ENT</code> ====
:The ENT command define the TONE shape of a sound which means manipulating the frequency in a certain range.
:The command could looks like:
<pre>
ENT NUMBER,STEPS?,VERTICAL?,HORIZONTAL?
</pre>
:It is possible to define 15 different envelope shapes. So '''NUMBER''' could be 1-15.

:Each '''?''' stands for up to five sections (1-5), where each STEP<>VERTICAL<>HORIZONTAL with the same '''?''' are belong together.

:'''STEP:''' means how many steps in each section (0-127) > one step is 1/100 of a second!
:'''VERTICAL''': means how big is the step size from bottom to top (-128 to 127)
:'''HORIZONTAL''': means how big is the step size from left to right (0-255)

==== <code>ENV</code> ====
:The ENV command define the VOLUME shape of a sound which means manipulating the loudness in a certain range.
:The command could looks like:
<pre>
ENV NUMBER,STEPS?,VERTICAL?,HORIZONTAL?
</pre>
:It is possible to define 15 different envelope shapes. So '''NUMBER''' could be 1-15.

:Each '''?''' stands for up to five sections (1-5), where each STEP<>VERTICAL<>HORIZONTAL with the same '''?''' are belong together.

:'''STEP:''' means how many steps in each section (0-127) > one step is 1/100 of a second!
:'''VERTICAL''': means how big is the step size from bottom to top (-128 to 127)
:'''HORIZONTAL''': means how big is the step size from left to right (0-255)

==== <code>ERASE v1[% | ! | $][,v2[% | ! | $][,...]]</code> ====
: Erases the specified array(s) and frees the memory used. Must specify existing array(s) or an <code>Improper argument</code> error will be generated.

==== <code>ERL</code> ====

: Returns the line number of the last error encountered.

==== <code>ERROR i</code> ====
: Returns the error message whose error code number is i.

==== <code>EVERY i[,t] GOSUB ln</code> ====

: BASIC branches to the subroutine at line ln EVERY (reccuring) i/50 seconds. (see also "AFTER i[,t] GOSUB line")

: There are 4 delay timers from 0 to 3 which can be specified with ‹timer number›. If omitted ‹timer number› defaults to 0.
: In the case of parallel task has 3 the highest and 0 the lowest priority.
: With DI or EI you can disable or enable the timing interrupt. With REMAIN <timer number> you can also disable an AFTER or EVERY construct and stores the "remaining" time (> REMAIN)
: Interrupts run as long as the main loop / program runs, even the main programm is paused > press ESC only '''once''' not twice for a break.
: It is important to know or realise that low-priority-interrupts which occurs simultanously to higher-priority-interrupts are not lost. Their task remains or handled again after finishing the higher-prio interrupt.

<pre>
10 REM > interrupts
20 EVERY 50,0 GOSUB 100: REM > lowest priority
30 EVERY 100,1 GOSUB 200
40 EVERY 200,2 GOSUB 300:
50 AFTER 1000,3 GOSUB 400: REM > highest priority
60 WHILE flag=0
70 a=a+1:print a
80 WEND
90 END
100 REM #0
110 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 0":PEN 1
120 RETURN
200 REM #1
210 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 1":PEN 1
220 RETURN
300 REM #2
310 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 2":PEN 1
320 RETURN
400 REM #3
410 flag=1:PEN 2:PRINT "no more interrupts..."
420 RETURN
</pre>

: Hint: Timing with interrupts is important, especially if more than one interrupts run. If the interval of a subroutine driven by an interrupt is too long than the processor can never get back to deal the main program again. Work out timing by measuring the subroutine or by trial and error.
: There are system internal interrupts (highest level) which cannot be influenced by BASIC interrupts (e.g. keyboard scan > BREAK key.)
: The next level of sytem internal interrupts CAN be influenced by BASIC interrupts. For example the sound queue which will be created by "ON SQ <chanel> GOSUB <line>". Those sound interrupts have an independent time tricker but their priority is parallel to the second priority times of BASICs interrupts. Therefore interrupts with timer 3 could "interrupt" them.

==== <code>FILL i</code> ====
: Fills an area of a graphics screen i colour i (0-15). Default value of i is the current graphics pen colour. Only available in Basic 1.1.

==== <code>FN</code> ====
:BASIC allows the program to define and use simple value returning functions. DEF FuNction is the definition part of this mechanism and creates program-specific function which works within the
:program in the same way as a function such a COS operates as a built-in function of BASIC. It may be invoked throughout the program. Variable types must be consistent and the DEF FN
:command should be written in part of the program outside the execution loop.

:Syntax : DEF FN<name>[(<formal parameters>)]=<general expression>

:Example: ''"with the definition of..."''
<pre>
10 gn=9.80665
20 DEF FNgrv=s0+v0*t+0.5*gn*t^2
30 s0=0:v0=0:t=5
40 PRINT "...after";t;"seconds your dropped stone falls";FNgrv;"metres"
</pre>
:''"the results are..."''
<pre>
:...after 5 seconds your dropped stone falls 122.58315 metres
</pre>

==== <code>FOR TO STEP NEXT</code> ====
: Creating a counting loop (control strucutre) with a starting condition. Inside the counting loop one or more commands will be executed.
: The loop consists of of following specifications:

: 1. FOR
: 2. ''a control variable''
: 3. =
: 4. ''starting value''
: 5. TO
: 6. ''target value''
: 7. STEP [optional]
: 8. ''increment / step size''
: ''... instructions between''
: 9. NEXT
: 10. ''control variable'' [optional]

: You have to use the command STEP if you wish to count backwards. It's good to name the ''control variable'' after NEXT for readability and better program style.
: After each loop the computer checks internaly if the ''target value'' has been reached (like an IF ... THEN ... ELSE instruction). If the target value is reached NEXT closes the loop and calculates another step, so the ''control variable'' will be changed last time.
: The default STEP value - if not specified - is one (1).

: Example:
<pre>
10 FOR I=1 TO 10
20 PRINT I;
30 NEXT I
40 PRINT I
RUN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
READY
</pre>

==== <code>FRAME</code> ====
: Smooths character and graphics movement and reduces flicker (waits for a VSYNC signal). Only available in Basic 1.1. On a CPC 464 you can use CALL &BD19 instead.

==== <code>GOSUB i</code> ====

: Jumps to subroutine which is given as argument.
: ''Example:''

<pre>
10 PRINT "Calling subroutine"
20 GOSUB 100
30 PRINT "Back from subroutine"
40 END
100 REM Begin of the subroutine
110 PRINT "Subroutine started"
120 RETURN
</pre>

==== <code>GOTO i</code> ====
: Jumps to the line number which is given as argument.
: ''Example:''
<pre>
10 GOTO 100
20 REM not executed
30 REM not executed
100 PRINT "Hello World!"
</pre>
: GOTO is the simplest form of a jump or creating a loop '''without''' condition controll.
: ''Example: (unconditional and endless loop)''
<pre>
10 PRINT "#";
20 GOTO 10
</pre>
: Combine the GOTO command with an IF...THEN...ELSE instruction for creating a condition-controlled loop with the '''test at the end'''. Helpful because the Locomotive Basic has no practical DO...WHILE... loop.
: ''Example: (condition at the end)''
<pre>
10 I=1
20 PRINT I
30 I=I+1
40 IF I<25 THEN GOTO 10
50 END
</pre>

==== <code>GRAPHICS</code> ====
: ...works only in combination with the command PEN or PAPER to set the plotting/drawing pen or background.

==== <code>IF THEN ELSE</code> ====
: Asks for a choice with the '''IF...THEN...ELSE''' statement.
: '''IF''' compares the entry condition in a logical way
: '''THEN''' contains instruction if the comparison is true
: '''ELSE''' contains instruction if it's false.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 INPUT "guess a figure:",f
20 IF f=10 THEN PRINT "right": END: ELSE GOTO 10
</pre>
: In case of nested choices there's a possibility to that with an IF...THEN instruction but not very recommended:
<pre>
10 INPUT "guess a figure:",f
20 IF f=10 THEN PRINT "right": END: ELSE IF f<10 THEN PRINT "too small" ELSE PRINT "too big"
30 GOTO 10
</pre>
:Other nested structures like IF...THEN...'''ELSE...ELSE''' won't work first because the Locomotive Basic only looks after the first ELSE instruction found and can't execute more single commands as a block for a certain condition in comparision to e.g. "PASCAL" > begin...end-block, "C" > {...}-block.

==== <code>INK</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>INPUT[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>KEY</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>LET</code> ====
: Used to define variables. You don't need to use the ''LET'' command because it is just a command which was added for compatibility reasons.
: ''Example:''
<pre>
10 LET a$ = "hello world"
20 PRINT a$
</pre>

==== <code>LINE INPUT [#‹stream expression›][,]‹variable›[,‹variable›] </code>====
: [...]

==== <code>LIST [‹line number›][-[‹line number›]], [#‹stream expression›]</code>====
: A command for listing the Basic program code.
: Possibility for manipulating display is using line numbers with a minus symbol.
: Example:
<pre>
LIST 100-
</pre>
: List every line after line number 100.
<pre>
LIST -100
</pre>
: List every line until line number 100 has reached.
<pre>
LIST 100-200
</pre>
: List every line between line number 100 and 200 included

: With the help of seperate window definitions it is possible to print out long listings, better differents parts / slices of it into different window predefined
: Example:
<pre>
LIST 1000-1100,#1
LIST 3000-3100,#2
</pre>
: ...prints out two parts of one program out into two windows (if they are defined well)

==== <code>LOAD ‹file name›[,‹address›] </code>====
: [...]

==== <code>LOCATE[#‹stream expression›][,] x,y</code> ====

: Moves the text cursor to the x,y location.

: x starts at 1 on the left and goes up to 20 (in mode 0), 40 (in mode 1) or 80 (in mode 2).

: y starts at 1 at the top and ends at 25 at the bottom.

==== <code>MASK [i1][,i2]</code> ====

: Sets bits in each adjacent group of 8 pixel on (1) or off (0) according to binary value of i1 (0-255). i2 determines whether the first point of the line is to plotted (1) or not (0).

:Example:

<pre>
10 CLG 2:MASK 1:MOVE 0,0:DRAW 500,400
20 MASK 15:MOVE 0,0:DRAW 500,400
</pre>

==== <code>MEMORY add</code> ====

: Allocates the amount of memory to be used by BASIC by setting the address of the highest byte it may use.

==== <code>MERGE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>MID$</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>MODE</code> ====
: Changes the screen mode: MODE 0 is 160x200 in 16 colors, MODE 1 is 320x200 4 colors, MODE 2 is 640x200 2 colors and MODE 3 is 160x200 in 4 colors.

==== <code>MOVE x,y [[,i1][,i2]]</code> ====

: Moves the graphic cursor to position x,y. The parameter i1 may be used to change the pen (drawing) colour. The parameter i2 specifies the logical colour, as in DRAW.

==== <code>MOVER</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>NEW</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>ON BREAK CONT</code> ====

: Prevents the interruption of program execution by the ESC key.

==== <code>ON BREAK GOSUB ln</code> ====

: Passes control to subroutine at line ln when ESC ESC pressed.

==== <code>ON BREAK STOP</code> ====

: Restores normal function of ESC key during program execution.

==== <code>ON ERROR GOTO ln</code> ====

: Passes the control to line ln if an error is detected in the program.

: ON ERROR GOTO 0, Turns of the error trap, and restores normal error processing.

==== <code>ON variable GOTO ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====

: In case of passing more choices '''ON variable GOTO ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...''' points to a table with the jumping target.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 PRINT "1. LOAD - 2. SAVE - 3. EXIT"
20 INPUT choice
30 ON choice GOTO 1000, 2000, 3000
40 CLS: GOTO 10
1000 PRINT "1. LOAD":END
2000 PRINT "2. SAVE":END
3000 END
</pre>
:In case that the variable ''choice'' won't fullfil the condition (in a range between line 0 and 65535) the next instruction will be executed (here: Line 40). If "choice" is smaller than 0 an error will occur.

==== <code>ON variable GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====

: In case of passing more choices targeting to SUBROUTINES '''ON variable GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...''' points to a jumping table.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 PRINT "1. LOAD - 2. SAVE - 3. EXIT"
20 INPUT choice
30 ON choice GOSUB 1000, 2000, 3000
40 CLS: GOTO 10
1000 PRINT "1. LOAD":RETURN
2000 PRINT "2. SAVE":RETURN
3000 END
</pre>
:In case that the variable ''choice'' won't fullfil the condition (in a range between line 0 and 65535) the next instruction will be executed (here: Line 40). If "choice" is smaller than 0 an error will occur.

==== <code>ON SQ(x) GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====
:ON SQ(x) can trigger an interrupt when e.g. a space or free channel in queue.
:Using that command is a one way interrupt trigger and shouldn't be mixed with EVERY or AFTER commands.

:See also the SQ(x) command for more details.

==== <code>OPENIN "datafile"</code> ====

: Opens the specified data file for reading. It have to be an ASCII file. ( The command closein closes reading data file. )

==== <code>OPENOUT "datafile"</code> ====
: Opens the specified data file for writing. It writes an ASCII file. (To close writing use the command closein.)

==== <code>ORIGIN</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>OUT add,i</code> ====

: Outputs the value of i (0-255) to the I/O address add.

==== <code>PAPER[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PEN[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PLOT</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PLOTR</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>POKE add</code> ====

: Alters contents of memory location add to value i (0-255)

==== <code>PRINT[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>RAD</code> ====
: Switch to radians mode for trigonometric functions (<tt>SIN</tt>, <tt>COS</tt>...).

: ''See also:'' <tt>DEG</tt>

==== <code>RANDOMIZE [seed]</code> ====

: Resets the pseudo-random generator to the given seed. What is strange is that if no seed is given, one is interactively prompted for.

: A common idiom to have a ''random'' random seed is to do:

<pre>
RANDOMIZE TIME
</pre>

The algorithm used for randomizing is the following: the generator starts with the seed, adds 1, multiplies by 75 (fiddle factor), divides by 65537 and then uses the remainder -1.

==== <code>READ variable</code> ====
: Gets the next data item (from <tt>DATA</tt> commands), stores it in the given variable and moves to the next item.
The variable must be of the correct type.

''See also:'' <tt>DATA</tt>, <tt>RESTORE</tt>

==== <code>RELEASE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>REM [any text]</code> ====
: Introduces a comment.

==== <code>RENUM [‹newLine›][,‹oldLine› | ,[‹oldLine›],‹step›] </code>====
: Renumbers the lines of the current program.

: By default, the whole program is renumbered starting at line 10 with multiples of ten. Any parameter that is left out defaults to 10. It is important to note that ''jumps'' (<code>GOTO</code>, <code>GOSUB</code> and the like) are automatically converted to the new line numbers.

: The whole set of parameters can be used to renumber only the last part of a program.

: Example:

<pre>
10 GOTO 20
20 GOTO 30
30 GOTO 10
</pre>

: becomes, after calling <code>RENUM 100,20,5</code>

<pre>
10 GOTO 100
100 GOTO 105
105 GOTO 10
</pre>

==== <code>RESTORE [line]</code> ====

: Resets the data pointer used by <tt>READ</tt>. When used without parameters, resets the pointer to the first data in the program. Otherwise, resets the pointer to the given line number.

: Example:

<pre>
10 DATA 10,11,12,13,14
20 DATA 20
READ i:PRINT i
10
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
11
Ready
RESTORE
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
10
Ready
RESTORE 20
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
20
Ready
</pre>

: ''See also:'' <tt>DATA</tt>, <tt>READ</tt>

==== <code>RESUME</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>RETURN</code> ====

: Terminates a subroutine and returns control to the line following the GOSUB call (see GOSUB)

==== <code>RUN [line]</code> ====
: Runs the current program, optionally starting at a given line. If no line number is given, starts at the first line.

==== <code>SAVE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>SOUND</code> ====
: the SOUND command has following shape:
: SOUND '''C'''hannel,'''P'''eriod,'''D'''uration,'''V'''olume,Volume-'''Env'''elope,'''T'''one-'''En'''velope,'''N'''oise

:'''C:''' Selecting channel is done bitwise (combinations are possible of course):

<pre>
(Bit 0) &x00000001 = 1 = channel A (middle)
(Bit 1) &x00000010 = 2 = channel B (left)
(Bit 2) &x00000100 = 4 = channel C (right)
</pre>
:more function about channel are
<pre>
(Bit 3) &x00001000 = 8 = Rendezvous with channel A
(Bit 4) &x00010000 = 16 = Rendesvous with channel B
(Bit 5) &x00100000 = 32 = Rendesvous with channel C
(Bit 6) &x01000000 = 64 = Hold
(Bit 7) &x10000000 = 128 = Flush
</pre>
:'''P:''' the period number can be a figure between 0 and 4095 (2^12-1... 12 means that we have 12 tones (inclusive half-tones) in nine octaves on the CPC in sum and their distance between is the twelves square root of two), where 8 octaves are available. E.g. Octave 0 starts on middle C with number 478.
: To calculate the period you can use following formula: '''period=1,000,000/(16*frequency)''' or in short '''period=(65,000/frequency)'''
: (e.g. the note "A" with the frequency 440 Hz has the period 142 on the CPC)

:'''D:''' the duration of the note is measured in 1/100th of a second and can be any positive number in the range 1-32,767. 0 and negative number are in combination with ENT and ENV commands usefull. A negative number means repititions.

:'''V:''' the volume number range from 0-7 on a CPC 464 (BASIC 1.0) or 0-15 on a CPC664/6128 (BASIC 1.1)

:'''ENV:''' and '''ENT:''' For shaping the sound ENV (Volume) and ENT (Frequency) commands are available. The relation between SOUND and those commands comes with a figure between 1 to 15 for ENV (5th parameter) and 1 to 15 for ENT (6th parameter).

:'''N:''' the seventh parameter can be used for blending in noise between the range of 0-15 (BASIC 1.0) or 0-30 (BASIC 1.1). The higher the number the 'deeper' or 'dirty' is the noise.

==== <code>SPC <n></code> ====
: in conjunction with PRINT the SPC command prints out a certain number (n) of spaces.
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT "Hello";SPC(10);"World";
Hello World
</pre>

==== <code>SPEED <n1,n2> </code> ====
: ...in conjunction with the INK command SPEED defines the frequency of colour changes if a colour change was defined. The duration is calculated by n1=... or n2 =duration/50 seconds.

==== <code>SQ (channel)</code> ====

: Returns a bit significant integer showing state of the sound queue for specified channel where channel 1,2,3, = A, B, C

:Bits 0,1 and 2 Number of free entries in the queue
:Bits 3,4 and 5 Redezvous state at head of the queue
:Bit 6 Head of the queue is held
:Bit 7 Channel is currently active

==== <code>STOP</code> ====

: Breaks program execution at line containing the STOP statement. The message '''BREAK in''' is output with the line number.

==== <code>SWAP</code> ====
: SWAP works only in combination with the window command. Every error or status messages from the operating system will be displayed normaly on WINDOW#0 (=''main'' window). WINDOW SWAP changes the ''main'' window to the desired target window.
: Example (if a window with number 4 was defined before...):
<pre>
WINDOW SWAP 0,4
</pre>

==== <code>SYMBOL n,i1[,i2,i3,i4,i5,i6,i7,i8]</code> ====

: Redefines the appearance of the character at index n.
: Each of the following eight integers defines the contents of one pixel row, starting at the top of the character.
: Each character fits in an 8x8 pixel grid.
: Missing lines are considered as empty.

: Example:

<pre>
SYMBOL 255,255,129,129,129,129,129,129,255
PRINT CHR$(255)
</pre>

: Defines character 255 to look like an empty square and prints it.

: Initially, only characters with indices ranging from 240 to 255 can be redefined.
: See also <tt>SYMBOL AFTER</tt> to allow redefinition of arbitrary characters.

==== <code>SYMBOL AFTER n</code> ====
: Allows the redefinition of character symbols from index n included.

: Symbol redefinitions are made using the SYMBOL command above.
: Initially, only symbols from index 240 to 255 can be redefined. This initial situation can be restored with <tt>SYMBOL AFTER 240</tt>. Symbol previously redefined are restored to their original appearance.

==== <code>TAB</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>TAG [#st]</code> ====

: Allows text to print at graphics cursor position.
: see TAGOFF

==== <code>TAGOFF [#st]</code> ====

: Directs text to stream st printing it at previous text cursor position.

==== <code>TROFF</code> ====

: Turns off the program flow trace (see TRON)

==== <code>TRON</code> ====

: Turns on the program flow trace for debugging. Causes the line number of each statement executed to be displayed.

==== <code>USING</code> ====
: The USING assignement defines the format of the PRINT output. Its appointment happens by characters where each has a certain meaning.

'''Numbers / Figures'''
: the character:
:'''#''' stands for a figure between 0 - 9
:'''.''' stands for a decimal point
:'''+''' generates a positive sign if the value is positive
:'''-''' generates a negative sign if the value is nagative
:'''**''' generates a asterix for each empty "location" before the printed character
:'''$$''' generates a Dollar characters before the printed character (the same with the pound note)
:''',''' generates a comma every each three decimals (thousands per figure) and has to be set before the decimal point or at the end if without a decimal point.
:^ generates a scientific notation (with exponents) and a the end of the format appointment

'''Strings'''
: the character:
:'''!''' prints out only the first character
:'''\xxx\''' prints out only with x-numbers defined length of the string (from left to right). x means a blank sign made with the space bar
:'''&''' the whole string is printed out as given (unknown function)

: a print output (numbers) with "%" in the beginning shows that not enough positions has to be declared (at all or before the decimal point).

: Example:
<pre>
10 figure=123456789
20 word$="Hello"
30 print using "+**,##########";figure
40 print using "\ \";word$

creates following output:

*****+12,345,679
Hel
</pre>

==== <code>WAIT add, i1[,i2]</code> ====

: Waits until the I/O port at add returns a value (0-255). The value returned is XORed with i2 and the ANDed with i1. This is repeated until a non-zero result occurs.

==== <code>WHILE WEND</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>WIDTH</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>WINDOW[#‹stream expression›],[L],[R],[T],[B]</code> ====
: It is possible to define in BASIC eight (8) independent windows for text output. Overlapping is possible.

: #STREAM: eight window are possible. No. zero (0) is the main window where error or status messages were put out by default.
: each position is included inside the window
: L = left column / R = right column (dependent of the mode 0 = 20 / 1 = 40 / 2 = 80)
: T = top row / B = bottom row (always from 1 to 25)

: Example:
<pre>
MODE 1
WINDOW#1,1,40,1,6
</pre>
: ...defines the first top quarter of the screen for window No. 1

==== <code>WRITE [#st,] v[$], v[$]</code> ====

: Writes the values of the specified variable to the specified stream.

: Example:

<pre>
10 OPENOUT "DUMMY"
20 INPUT A$,A
30 WRITE #9,A$,A
40 CLOSEOUT
</pre>

==== <code>ZONE i</code> ====

: Changes the width of the print zone. Default is 13.
: Example:
<pre>
10 MODE 2
20 PRINT"normal zone (13)"
30 PRINT 1,2,3,4
RUN
normal zone(13)
1 2 3 4
READY
20 PRINT"now with different zone(5)"
30 ZONE 5
40 PRINT 1,2,3,4
RUN
now with different zone(5)
1 2 3 4
READY
</pre>

=== Operators ===
: A logical status in Locomotive Basic will be represented by a "-1" for TRUE and by a "0" for FALSE.
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT (1=1)
-1
PRINT (1=2)
0
</pre>
==== <code>AND</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the AND Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
</pre>
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT 128 AND 64
0
</pre>
: looking at the BIT combination for a better understanding:
<pre>
10000000
AND 01000000
================
= 00000000
</pre>
: even in BASIC it is possible to manipulate single BITs although there are no special commands but AND, OR and XOR.
: first an example for a loop with an increasing counter WITHOUT an AND:
<pre>
10 counter=0
20 counter=counter+1
30 IF counter=32 THEN counter=0
40 GOTO 20
</pre>
: then a shorter example WITH and AND:
<pre>
10 counter=0
20 counter=(counter+1) AND 31
30 GOTO 20
</pre>
: in the second example all more significant BITs will be deleted (a common method in assembler programming)
: Beware: it only works here with BIT/number conditions one figure smaller than 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63 and 127
==== <code>MOD</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>NOT</code> ====
: '''NOT''' executes a bit for bit '''negation''' of the current value. The output is a 16-Bit-Word.
:
:'''Example:'''
<pre>
10 value1=1
20 value2=NOT value1
30 PRINT value2
run
-2
</pre>
:for a better understanding...
<pre>
10 value1=1
20 PRINT HEX$(value1):PRINT BIN$(value1,8)
30 value2=NOT value1
40 PRINT HEX$(value2):PRINT BIN$(value2,8)
run
1
00000001
FFFE
1111111111111110
</pre>

==== <code>OR</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the OR Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
</pre>
==== <code>XOR</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the XOR Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
</pre>

=== Functions ===

==== <code>ABS (n)</code> ====
: Returns the absolute value of n by ignoring the sign value.

: Example

<pre>
PRINT ABS(-3.5) - prints 3.5
</pre>

==== <code>ASC (s)</code> ====

: Returns ASCII code number of first character of string s

==== <code>ATN (n)</code> ====
: Returns the arctangent of n.

==== <code>BIN$ (i1,[i2])</code> ====
: Returns binary representation of i1 between -32768 and 65535. The number of binary digits (0s and 1s) is specified by i2 (0-16)
: Example:

<pre>
PRINT BIN$(66,8) - prints 01000010
</pre>

==== <code>CHR$ (n)</code> ====
: Returns the character for a given index n. For instance CHR$(65) returns the character 'A'. Valid indices range from 0 (zero) to 255.

: As an example, try the following basic program :

<pre>10 print chr$(208+rnd(2));:goto 10</pre>

: It will draw a random maze with characters 208 and 209, which are an horizontal and a vertical bar.
:
:The CHR$ code between 0 and 31 will not print out a character but perform a function:
<pre>
===============================================================================
| VALUE | NAME | PARAMETERS | EFFECT |
===============================================================================
| DEC | HEX | | | |
===============================================================================
| 0 | &00 | NUL | NONE | DOES NOTHING |
| 1 | &01 | SOH | 0-255 | PRINTS CHARACTER TO SCREEN |
| 2 | &02 | STX | NONE | TURNS TEXT CURSOR OFF |
| 3 | &03 | ETX | NONE | TURNS TEXT CURSOR ON IN IMMEDIATE |
| | | | | MODE |
| 4 | &04 | EOT | 0-2 | SET SCREEN MODE |
| 5 | &05 | ENQ | 0-255 | PRINT CHARACTER AT GRAPHICS CURS. |
| 6 | &06 | ACK | NONE | TURNS ON TEXT SCREEN (SEE ALSO CHR$(21))|
| 7 | &07 | BEL | NONE | MAKE A SHORT BEEP |
| 8 | &08 | BS | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR BACK ONE CHARACTER |
| 9 | &09 | TAB | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR FORWARD ONE CHARACTER |
| 10 | &0A | LF | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR DOWN ONE CHARACTER |
| 11 | &0B | VT | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR UP ONE CHARACTER |
| 12 | &0C | FF | NONE | CLEARS SCREEN OR WINDOWS (= CLS) |
| 13 | &0D | CR | NONE | MOVES CURSOR TO LEFT EDGE OF WINDOW ON |
| | | | | CURRENT LINE |
| 14 | &0E | SO | 0-15 | SETS PAPER COLOUR |
| 15 | &0F | SI | 0-15 | SETS PEN COLOUR |
| 16 | &10 | DLE | NONE | DELETES CHARACTER UNDER TEXT CURSOR |
| 17 | &11 | DC1 | NONE | CLEARS LINE FROM LEFT OF WINDOW UP TO |
| | | | | AND INCLUDING CURRENT CHARACTER |
| 18 | &12 | DC2 | NONE | CLEARS FROM CURRENT CHARACTER TO RIGHT |
| | | | | EDGE OF THE WINDOW |
| 19 | &13 | DC3 | NONE | CLEARS FROM START OF WINDOW UP TO AND |
| | | | | INCLUDING CURRENT CHARACTER |
| 20 | &14 | DC4 | NONE | CLEARS FROM CURRENT CHARACTER TO END OF |
| | | | | WINDOW |
| 21 | &15 | NAK | NONE | TURNS OFF TEXT SCREEN (SEE ALSO CHR$(6))|
| 22 | &16 | SYN | 0 AND 1 | TURNS TRANSPARENT OPTION OFF AND ON |
| 23 | &17 | ETB | 0-3 | SET GRPAHICS PLOTTING MODE |
| 24 | &18 | CAN | NONE | CHANGE TO INVERSE CHARACTER DISPLAYING |
| 25 | &19 | EM | NINE PARAM. | DEFINES A CHARACTER (= SAME AS SYMBOL) |
| | | | EACH 0-255 | |
| 26 | &1A | SUB | FOUR PARAM. | DEFINES A TEXT WINDOW (=SAME AS WINDOW) |
| | | | 1-80, 1-80 | FROM LEFT, RIGHT, TOP TO BOTTOM |
| | | | 1-25, 1-25 | FROM LEFT, RIGHT, TOP TO BOTTOM |
| 27 | &1B | ESC | NONE | DOES NOTHING ON SCREEN (PRINTER SIGNAL) |
| 28 | &1C | FS | THREE PARAM. | SETS INK COLOUR TO FLASH BETWEEN TWO |
| | | | 0-15, 0-32 | INK NO, COLOUR 1, COLOUR 2 |
| | | | 0-32 | |
| 29 | &1D | GS | TWO PARAM. | SETS BORDER COLOUR TO FLASH BETWEEN TWO |
| | | | 0-31, 0-31 | COLOURS |
| 30 | &1E | RS | NONE | HOMES CURSOR TO TOP LEFT OF SCREEN |
| 31 | &1F | US | TWO PARAM. | MOVES CURSOR TO CELL SPECIFIED BY TWO |
| | | | 1-80, 1-25 | PARAMETERS (=SAME AS LOCATE) |
===============================================================================
</PRE>

==== <code>CINT (n)</code> ====

: Returns rounded up integer value of n between -32768 and 32767.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT CINT(3.8) - print 4
</pre>

==== <code>COPYCHR$ (st)</code> ====

: Copies character from current position in specified stream.

==== <code>COS (n)</code> ====

: Returns cosine of n in degrees or radians (se DEG and RAD)

==== <code>CREAL (n)</code> ====

: Converts integer n to real numeric variable.

==== <code>DEC$(n, format)</code> ====

: Retruns the decimal string representation of n, according to the specified format (see PRINT USING)

==== <code>DERR</code> ====

: Gives the most recent error code number returned by [[Amsdos]].

==== <code>EOF</code> ====

: Checks to see if end of specified file has been reached during input. Returns 0 (false) until the end of file, then -1 (true)

: This example reads a file from disc and print it out on screen. Like the "TYPE" command in CP/M or "|TYPE,file" of the UTOPIA-ROM.
<pre>
10 OPENIN "text.txt"
20 WHILE NOT EOF
30 LINE INPUT#9,a$
40 PRINT a$
50 WEND
60 CLOSEIN
</pre>

==== <code>ERR</code> ====

: Returns the error code number of the last error encountered.

==== <code>EXP (i)</code> ====

: Returns the result of calculating e to the power i.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT EXP(1) - prints 2.71828183
</pre>

==== <code>FIX (n)</code> ====

: Removes the fractional part of n (see INT)

==== <code>FRE (n/se)</code> ====

: Returns the amount of unused memory, irrespective of the nature or value of the dummy argument inside the bracket.

: Examples:

<pre>
PRINT FRE(o) or PRINT FRE("hello")
</pre>

==== <code>HEX$ (i1, i2)</code> ====

: Returns a string hexadecimal digit representation of i1 (0-65535). The number of hex digits in the string is given by i2 (0-15)

==== <code>HIMEM</code> ====

: Returns address of the highest memory address used by BASIC.

==== <code>INKEY (i)</code> ====
: Checks to see if key number i is being pressed.

<pre>
Value returned [SHIFT] [CTRL] Specified key
-1 ignored ignored up
0 up up down
32 down up down
128 up down down
160 down down down
</pre>

==== <code>INKEY$</code> ====

: Checkts the keyboard and returns the string character of the key pressed. The string character returned is normally assigned to a string variable. If no key pressed, a null string is returned.

==== <code>INP (add)</code> ====

: Returns value read from the I/O address add

==== <code>INSTR</code> ====

:INSTR ([startposition,]explored string, seeking string)
<blockquote>This function looks inside "explored string" after "seeking string" and return a number where the found string appear for the first time. Returns zero if not successfull. Startposition could be a figure between 1 and 255. </blockquote><pre>a$="ABCD":PRINT INTR(a$,"C") - returns with "3"</pre>

==== <code>INT (n)</code> ====

: As in FIX if n is positive; if n is negative, it rounds it down.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT INT(3.99), INT(-3.99) - prints 3 -4
</pre>

==== <code>JOY (i)</code> ====

: Returns bit-significant value from specified joystick. i = 0 or 1.

<pre>
Bit Value returned
0(up) 1
1(down) 2
2(left) 4
3(right) 8
4(fire 2) 16
5(fire 1) 32
</pre>

==== <code>LEFT$ (se, i)</code> ====

: Returns a substring of se. The substring begins at the left-most character of se and contains i characters.

: Example:

<pre>
A$="ABCDEFG":PRINT LEFT$(A$,3) - prints ABC
</pre>

==== <code>LEN (se)</code> ====

: Returns the number of characters in se (0 - 255)

==== <code>LOG (n)</code> ====

: Returns the natural logarithm (to base e) of n.

==== <code>LOG10 (n)</code> ====

: Returns the logarithm to base 10 of n.

==== <code>LOWER$ (se)</code> ====

: Returns a copy of se in which all alphabetical characters are converted to lower case (see also UPPER)

: Example

<pre>
PRINT LOWER$("A1B2c3") - print a1b2c3
</pre>

==== <code>MAX (list of n)</code> ====

: Returns the maximum value from the given list.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT MAX(3,8,25,1,2,9) - prints 25
</pre>

==== <code>MIN (list of n)</code> ====

: Returns the minimum value from the given list (see MAX)

==== <code>PEEK (add)</code> ====

: Returns the contents of the specified memory location (0-65535)

==== <code>PI</code> ====

: Returns value of PI (3.14159265)

==== <code>POS (#st)</code> ====

: Returns column number of print position relative to left edge of text window on stream st. st must be specified.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT POS(#0) - prints 1
</pre>

==== <code>REMAIN (i)</code> ====

: Returns count remaining in delay timer i (0-3) then disables it.
: For the reason that REMAIN is no normal command but a "function" it is necessary in case of a proper functionality to link the command.
: a example in combination with an interrupt delay timer 1:
<pre>
PRINT REMAIN(1)
</pre>
or to stop several/all interrupts at the same time...
<pre>
A=REMAIN(0)=REMAIN(1)=REMAIN(2)=REMAIN(3)
</pre>
: Hint: Take care of interrupts due to parallel working (the same cycle time) or if they are stopped with the BREAK key. Interrupts which were disabled for a certain time will be stored in buffer (for a maximum of 128 entries) and made up their task afterwards in the priorisation as declared.

==== <code>RIGHT$ (se,i)</code> ====

: Returns a substring of length i (0-255) characters from se, ending at the rightmost character of se.

: Example

<pre>
PRINT RIGHT$("ABCDEFG",3) - prints EFG
</pre>

==== <code>RND [(n)]</code> ====
: Generates the next random number in the current squence if n is positive or omitted. If n = 0, the random number generated will be the same as the last random number generated.

: Exampel for generating an integer random number between 1 and 1000
<pre>
10 A=INT((RND(1)*1000)+1)
20 PRINT A
30 GOTO 10
</pre>

: Exampel for generating a random number between a lower and higher border
<pre>
10 INPUT "Low border",low
20 INPUT "High border",high
30 A=INT(RND(1)*(high-low))+low
40 PRINT A
</pre>

==== <code>ROUND (n[,i1])</code> ====

: Rounds n to a number of decimal places or to the power of ten specified by i. If i is negative, the n is rounded to give an absolute integer with i zeros before the decimal point.
: Example:

<pre>
PRINT ROUND(1562.357,2):PRINT ROUND(1562.375,-2) - prints 1562.36 1600
</pre>

==== <code>SGN (n)</code> ====
: Returns 1 if n is positive, 0 if n = 0, -1 if n is negative.

==== <code>SIN (n)</code> ====
: Returns sine of n in degree or radian mode (see DEG and RAD)

==== <code>SPACE$(i)</code> ====

: Creates a string containing i spaces (0-255)

==== <code>SQ (channel)</code> ====
: Returns a bit significant integer showing state of the sound queue for specified channel where channel 1, 2, 3 = A, B, C.
<pre>
Bits 0,1 and 2 number of free entries in the queue
Bits 3,4 and 5 redezvous state at head of the queue
Bit 6 head of the queue is held
Bit 7 channel is currently active
</pre>

==== <code>SQR (n)</code> ====
: Returns the square root of n.

==== <code>STR$(n)</code> ====

: Returns the string representation of number n.
: Useful for converting a number to a string in case of string manipulation. E.g. after converting a figure to a string then the most left character holds the sign: a minus in case the figure is negative and a space in case the figure is positiv.
: Example:
<pre>
10 FIGURE=-1599
20 FIGURE$=STR$(FIGURE)
30 PRINT FIGURE$
-1599

10 FIGURE=1769
20 FIGURE$=STR$(FIGURE)
30 PRINT FIGURE$
1769
</pre>
: (there's a blank on the left-hand of the number "1769")
: If you want to add e.g. zero before the figure in case of a high score with fix digit-number then you're able to add zero(s) in front of a string instead of a figure.

==== <code>STRING$</code> ====

: Returns i copies of the string character specified by s.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT STRING$(3,"*") - prints ***
</pre>

==== <code>TAN (n)</code> ====

: Returns the tangent of n. The DEG and RAD commands can be used to force the result to either mode.

==== <code>TEST (x,y)</code> ====

: Moves the graphics cursor by x and y and returns the value of the ink at that position.

==== <code>TESTR (x,y)</code> ====

: Moves the graphics cursor by x and y relative to its current position and returns the value of ink at that position.

==== <code>TIME</code> ====
: Returns time elapsed since the computer was switched on or reset.
: One second = TIME/300.

==== <code>UNT (add)</code> ====

: Returns an integer(-32768 to 32767) which is the two's complement of add.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT UNT(&FF66) - prints -154
</pre>

==== <code>UPPER$(se)</code> ====

: Gives copy of se with all alphabetic characters in upper case.

==== <code>VAL(se)</code> ====

:Returns the numeric value (including signs) of first numeric character(s) in se. Returns 0 if se starts with a non-number.
:Example:
<pre>PRINT VAL("-12.34x"),VAL("A-12") - prints -12.34 0
</pre>
:Exception: if <se> starts with "&" + character (and it's between "A" and "F") the whole character will be handled like a hexadezimal numeric character (...often used in DATA Loaders). The returning numeric value is a  signed integer (16-Bit Word).
<pre>PRINT VAL("&A") - returns a 10

PRINT VAL("&7FFF") - returns a 32767

PRINT VAL("&8000") - returns a -32768</pre>

==== <code>VPOS (#st)</code> ====
: Reports the current row (line) position of the text cursor relative to the top of the text windows of the specified stream.

==== <code>XPOS</code> ====

: Returns the current horizontal (x) position of the graphics cursor.

==== <code>YPOS</code> ====

: Returns the current vertical (y) position of the graphics cursor.

''(Please, fill in. Looks like a lot of work ;-) ...)''

== Error codes ==

* 1 '''Unexpected NEXT''' - <code>NEXT</code> encountered without matching <code>FOR</code>.
* 2 '''Syntax Error''' - Typing error or incorrect punctuation.
* 3 '''Unexpected RETURN''' - <code>RETURN</code> encountered when there was no active <code>GOSUB</code>.
* 4 '''DATA exhaused''' - Trying to <code>READ</code> data when data pointer has reached end of data.
* 5 '''Improper argument''' - The argument for a function is not legal (e.g. <code>PRINT SQR(-10)</code>).
* 6 '''Overflow''' - The computer cannot handle integers smaller than -32768 (signed) or larger than 65535 (unsigned) or floating point numbers greater than ±1.7E38.
* 7 '''Memory full''' - Not enough free RAM available to complete the operation. Program too big or control structures too deeply nested.
* 8 '''Line does not exist''' - Attempt to <code>RUN</code>, <code>GOTO</code> or <code>GOSUB</code> a non-existent line number.
* 9 '''Subscript out of range''' - Value of a subscript in an array is outside of range specified by <code>DIM</code> declaration or wrong number of dimensions supplied.
* 10 '''Array already dimensioned''' - Arrays can only be <code>DIM</code>ensioned once within a program.
* 11 '''Division by zero''' - Trying to divide a number by zero.
* 12 '''Invalid direct command''' - Using a statement as a direct command which is not allowed outside a program, e.g. <code>DEF FN</code>.
* 13 '''Type mismatch''' - Wrong data type encountered, string data instead of numeric value or vice versa.
* 14 '''String space full''' - String memory area is full.
* 15 '''String too long''' - String may not exceed 256 characters.
* 16 '''String expression too complex''' - A string expression needs to be broken down into smaller expressions.
* 17 '''Cannot CONTinue''' - <code>CONT</code> can only be used if program was stopped by [ESC] or a <code>STOP</code> in program - not after END. If the program is modified before issuing <code>CONT</code> you will also get this error.
* 18 '''Unknown user function''' - A <code>DEF FN</code> must be executed before calling an <code>FN</code> function.
* 19 '''RESUME missing''' - End of program has been reached while in error processing mode. Use <code>ON ERROR GOTO</code> before <code>RESUME</code>.
* 20 '''Unexpected RESUME''' - <code>RESUME</code> is only used in error processing mode, <code>ON ERROR GOTO</code> statement must be used first.
* 21 '''Direct Command found''' - A line without a line number has found while loading a file.
* 22 '''Operand missing''' - An incomplete expression has been found.
* 23 '''Line too long''' - The line contains too many statements.
* 24 '''EOF met''' - Trying to input data beyond end of data file.
* 25 '''FILE type error''' - Using a program file instead of a data file to read or write (or vice versa).
* 26 '''NEXT missing''' - The <code>NEXT</code> of a <code>FOR</code> ... <code>NEXT</code> loop is missing.
* 27 '''File already open''' - Trying to open an open file. Use <code>CLOSEIN</code> or <code>CLOSEOUT</code> first.
* 28 '''Unknown command''' - Given when an unknown command follows a <code>|</code>. e.g. <code>|DISC</code> on a CPC464 without AMSDOS installed.
* 29 '''WEND missing''' - The <code>WEND</code> part of the <code>WHILE</code> ... <code>WEND</code> loop is missing.
* 30 '''Unexpected WEND''' - <code>WEND</code> encountered without a corresponding active <code>WHILE</code>.
* 31 '''File not open''' - Attempting to read from or write to a file without <code>OPEN</code>ing it first.
* '''Unknown error''' - Executing <code>ERROR</code> command with any other legal error code number (up to 255).
== Other Basic Dialects available for the CPC ==

*[[BBC Basic]]
*[[C BASIC Compiler|CBASIC]]
*[[BASIC-E]]

== Web links ==

* [http://www.cpctech.org.uk/docs/bastech.html Technical information at the Unofficial Amstrad WWW Resource]
* [http://www.sean.co.uk/books/amstrad/bforbasic.shtm Locomotive Basic Tutorial by Sean McManus]
* [http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Locomotive_Basic Code examples at Rosetta Code]

[[Category:Programming]]
[[Category:BASIC| ]]
[[Category:CPC Internal Components]]
[[Category:Operating System| ]]
[[Category:Software]]
[[Category:Programming software| ]]

Technical information about Locomotive BASIC

2012-09-18T16:50:21Z

Hal 6128: /* Structure of a BASIC program */

[[Category:Cpctech.org]]

'''''This artikel originally came from Kevin Thackers' archive at [http://www.cpctech.org.uk http://www.cpctech.org.uk].'''''

= Technical information about Locomotive BASIC =

The are two versions of Locomotive BASIC used in the Amstrad CPC and CPC+ computers. v1.0 is used by the CPC464, and v1.1 is used by the CPC664, CPC6128, CPC464+ and CPC6128+.

== Passing parameters to a RSX (Resident System Extension) command or binary function ==

A RSX (Resident System Extension) command is accessed through BASIC with a "|" character prefix. e.g. The "DIR" RSX, is accessed by "|DIR". A binary function is accessed through BASIC using the "CALL" command.

Both RSX and CALL commands works (are!) similar from BASIC command line and invokes a machine code - the only difference is: with the help of a RSX command you don't need to know the exact access address. You can pass up to 32 parameters with a CALL or RSX command. Possible parameters could integer, floating points and strings. Just store the parameter into a variable:
Passing for integer:
<pre>
CALL &4000,32,34,&5E,&x10101010
|RSX-command,32,34,&5E,&x10101010
</pre>
Passing for floating points
<pre>
@a!=43.375
CALL or |RSX-command,@a!
</pre>

 Passing a string parameter:
 BASIC v1.0
<pre>a$="A":|DRIVE,@a$
</pre>
BASIC v1.1:
<pre>|DRIVE,"A"
</pre>
or
<pre>
b$="test"
CALL or |RSX-command,@b$
</pre>

The parameters will be stored inside the range of Stack:
<pre>
A=n -------> MSB PARAM1
LSB PARAM1
MSB PARAM2
LSB PARAM2
...
...
...
MSB PARAMn
IX+2 ------> LSB PARAMn
</pre>
with the help of that assembly code is it possible to find the parameters:
<pre>
ROUT1: CP "x" ;test register A if "x" parameters were hand-overed, e.g. "x" = 2
RET NZ ; if no > failure and return.
LD L,(IX+2)
LD H,(IX+3) ; HL = value of last parameter
LD E,(IX+4)
LD D,(IX+5) ; DE = value of next to last parameter
...
</pre>
A register holds the number of parameters. IX points to each parameter. IX+0/IX+1 is the last parameter. Each parameter is a 16-bit value.

If a parameter is a string, the 16-bit value is an address of a "string descriptor block". The first byte of the string description or is the length. The next 2 bytes are an address that point to the string in memory.

With the help of the variable container "@" it is also possible to get a result from an invoked mc-code back to basic.
In this case the param contains the address of the integer, floating point or string. You can modify these to give the result.
BASIC allocates the strings, so when you modify a string, do not write more characters than the original string.

Hint: the first two bytes at the end of stack shows the internal return address from BASIC interpreter where it was executed.

== Additional keywords and variables in BASIC v1.1 ==

#BASIC v1.1 has the following additional keywords:
#*COPYCHR$
#*CURSOR
#*DEC$
#*FILL
#*FRAME
#*GRAPHICS
#*MASK
#BASIC v1.1 has the following additional predefined variables:
#*DERR

 

== Entering BASIC programs ==

A maximum of 255 characters can be entered for a single BASIC line.

There are some rules for assigning names for variables:
: - it is not allowed to define a variable starting with a figure (the system expect then programming mode and interpret it as a programm line number)
: - no space (or 'under' as it is common today) between variable names are allowed
: - BASIC keywords can't be used
: - different sign e.g.: a slash (doesn't depend which direction), a 'minus' sign, a 'and' sign can't be used in a variable names
: - after a dollar sign (for defining string variables) it is not allowed to use further signs
: - different defining functions together are not allowed (e.g. use '%' together with '$')

: - you can use 40 characters for a variable name
: - use ! for defining a REAL value variable (like the function DEFREAL but only for the assigned variable) > It's also possible to omit the exlamation mark because it's the default system declaration after powering on then CPC.
: - use % for defining a INTEGER value variable (like the function DEFINT but only for the assigned variable)
: - use $ for defining a STRING variable (like the function DEFSTR but only for the assigned variable)

This is converted into the tokenised BASIC program which is more compact than the line entered. The BASIC keywords are converted into "tokens", or 1-2 byte sequences which uniquely identify each keyword.

 

== Structure of a BASIC program ==

A BASIC program is stored in a tokenised format. Here the keywords are represented by 1 or 2 byte unique sequences. Each line of the BASIC program has the form:

 

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Size
! Description
|-
| 0
| 2
| Length of line data in bytes (note 1)
|-
| 2
| 2
| 16-bit decimal integer line number (note 2)
|-
| 4
| n
| BASIC line encoded into tokens (note 3)
|-
| n+1
| 1
| "0" the end of line marker (note 4)
|}

 Notes:

#This 16-bit value has two functions: if "0" it signals the end of the BASIC program. In this case, there is no furthur BASIC program lines or data, otherwise, this value defines the length of the tokenised BASIC program line in bytes, and includes the 2 bytes defining this value, the 2 bytes defining the program line number, and the end of line marker. This number is stored in little endian notation with low byte followed by high byte.
#This 16-bit value defines the line number and exists if the length of line data in bytes is not "0". A line number is a integer number in the range 1-65535. This number is stored in little endian notation with low byte followed by high byte.
#This data defines the tokenised BASIC program line and exists if the length of line data in bytes is not "0". The length is dependant on the BASIC program line contents.
#This value defines the end of the tokenised BASIC line data and exists if the length of line data in bytes is not "0". The BASIC interpreter looks for this token during the processing of this line, and if found, will stop execution and continue to the next line.

== BASIC tokens ==

This table list the BASIC tokens with no prefix byte.

 

{| border="1"
|-
! Code (hexidecimal)
! BASIC keyword
|-
| &00
| end of tokenised line marker
|-
| &01
| ":" statement seperator
|-
| &02
| integer variable definition (defined with "%" suffix)
|-
| &03
| string variable definition (defined with "$" suffix)
|-
| &04
| floating point variable definition (defined with "!" suffix)
|-
| &05
| var?
|-
| &06
| var?
|-
| &07
| var?
|-
| &08
| var?
|-
| &09
| var?
|-
| &0a
| var?
|-
| &0b
| variable definition (no suffix)
|-
| &0c
| variable definition (no suffix)
|-
| &0d
| variable definition (no suffix)
|-
| &0e
| number constant "0"
|-
| &0f
| number constant "1"
|-
| &10
| number constant "2"
|-
| &11
| number constant "3"
|-
| &12
| number constant "4"
|-
| &13
| number constant "5"
|-
| &14
| number constant "6"
|-
| &15
| number constant "7"
|-
| &16
| number constant "8"
|-
| &17
| number constant "9"
|-
| &18
| number constant "10"
|-
| &19
| 8-bit integer decimal value
|-
| &1a
| 16-bit integer decimal value
|-
| &1b
| 16-bit integer binary value (with "&X" prefix)
|-
| &1c
| 16-bit integer hexadecimal value (with "&H" or "&" prefix)
|-
| &1d
| 16-bit BASIC program line memory address pointer
|-
| &1e
| 16-bit integer BASIC line number
|-
| &1f
| floating point value
|-
| &20
| " " (space) symbol
|-
| &21
| ASCII "!" symbol
|-
| &22
| quoted string value
|-
| &23-7b
| ASCII printable symbols
|-
| &7c
| "|" symbol; prefix for RSX commands
|-
| &80
| AFTER
|-
| &81
| AUTO
|-
| &82
| BORDER
|-
| &83
| CALL
|-
| &84
| CAT
|-
| &85
| CHAIN
|-
| &86
| CLEAR
|-
| &87
| CLG
|-
| &88
| CLOSEIN
|-
| &89
| CLOSEOUT
|-
| &8a
| CLS
|-
| &8b
| CONT
|-
| &8c
| DATA
|-
| &8d
| DEF
|-
| &8e
| DEFINT
|-
| &8f
| DEFREAL
|-
| &90
| DEFSTR
|-
| &91
| DEG
|-
| &92
| DELETE
|-
| &93
| DIM
|-
| &94
| DRAW
|-
| &95
| DRAWR
|-
| &96
| EDIT
|-
| &97
| ELSE
|-
| &98
| END
|-
| &99
| ENT
|-
| &9a
| ENV
|-
| &9b
| ERASE
|-
| &9c
| ERROR
|-
| &9d
| EVERY
|-
| &9e
| FOR
|-
| &9f
| GOSUB, GO SUB
|-
| &a0
| GOTO, GO TO
|-
| &a1
| IF
|-
| &a2
| INK
|-
| &a3
| INPUT
|-
| &a4
| KEY
|-
| &a5
| LET
|-
| &a6
| LINE
|-
| &a7
| LIST
|-
| &a8
| LOAD
|-
| &a9
| LOCATE
|-
| &aa
| MEMORY
|-
| &ab
| MERGE
|-
| &ac
| MID$
|-
| &ad
| MODE
|-
| &ae
| MOVE
|-
| &af
| MOVER
|-
| &b0
| NEXT
|-
| &b1
| NEW
|-
| &b2
| ON
|-
| &b3
| ON BREAK
|-
| &b4
| ON ERROR GOTO, ON ERROR GO TO
|-
| &b5
| SQ
|-
| &b6
| OPENIN
|-
| &b7
| OPENOUT
|-
| &b8
| ORIGIN
|-
| &b9
| OUT
|-
| &ba
| PAPER
|-
| &bb
| PEN
|-
| &bc
| PLOT
|-
| &bd
| PLOTR
|-
| &be
| POKE
|-
| &bf
| PRINT
|-
| &c0
| "'" symbol (same function as REM keyword)
|-
| &c1
| RAD
|-
| &c2
| RANDOMIZE
|-
| &c3
| READ
|-
| &c4
| RELEASE
|-
| &c5
| REM
|-
| &c6
| RENUM
|-
| &c7
| RESTORE
|-
| &c8
| RESUME
|-
| &c9
| RETURN
|-
| &ca
| RUN
|-
| &cb
| SAVE
|-
| &cc
| SOUND
|-
| &cd
| SPEED
|-
| &ce
| STOP
|-
| &cf
| SYMBOL
|-
| &d0
| TAG
|-
| &d1
| TAGOFF
|-
| &d2
| TROFF
|-
| &d3
| TRON
|-
| &d4
| WAIT
|-
| &d5
| WEND
|-
| &d6
| WHILE
|-
| &d7
| WIDTH
|-
| &d8
| WINDOW
|-
| &d9
| WRITE
|-
| &da
| ZONE
|-
| &db
| DI
|-
| &dc
| EI
|-
| &dd
| FILL (v1.1)
|-
| &de
| GRAPHICS (v1.1)
|-
| &df
| MASK (v1.1)
|-
| &e0
| FRAME (v1.1)
|-
| &e1
| CURSOR (v1.1)
|-
| &e2
| (note 2)
|-
| &e3
| ERL
|-
| &e4
| FN
|-
| &e5
| SPC
|-
| &e6
| STEP
|-
| &e7
| SWAP
|-
| &e8
| (note 2)
|-
| &e9
| (note 2)
|-
| &ea
| TAB
|-
| &eb
| THEN
|-
| &ec
| TO
|-
| &ed
| USING
|-
| &ee
| > (greater than)
|-
| &ef
| = (equal)
|-
| &f0
| &gt=, > =, => (greater or equal)
|-
| &f1
| < (less than)
|-
| &f2
| <&gt, < > (not equal)
|-
| &f3
| =<, <=, < = (less than or equal)
|-
| &f4
| + (addition)
|-
| &f5
| - (subtraction or unary minus)
|-
| &f6
| * (multiplication)
|-
| &f7
| / (division)
|-
| &f8
| ^ (x to the power of y)
|-
| &f9
| \ (integer division)
|-
| &fa
| AND
|-
| &fb
| MOD
|-
| &fc
| OR
|-
| &fd
| XOR
|-
| &fe
| NOT
|-
| &ff
| (prefix for additional keywords)
|}

 Notes:

#*The &ff code is used as a prefix for more keywords. See the table below for the list of keywords using this prefix.
#*&e2,&e8 and &e9 are not used
#*&7c ("|") is a character prefix used to identify a RSX command.

e.g. "|DIR". An RSX is encoded in a BASIC program using the following structure:

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Count
! Description
|-
| 0
| 1
| "|" character prefix
|-
| 1
| 1
| 8-bit byte offset to tokens following RSX name.
|-
| 2
| x
| RSX name. (Last character of name has bit 7 set to "1", all other characters have bit 7 set to "0")
|}

#*This token identifies a integer (16-bit) number. The two bytes following this token is the number, stored low byte then high byte. e.g. &19,&2d,&00 represents the integer number "&002d"="45".
#*This token (&0B) is changed at run-time to &0D
#*This token identifies a integer variable. 02,00,00,var name offset to number in program setup when program RUN. The variable name is stored directly, with bit 7 of the last character set.
#*This token identifies a string variable. offset to string in program string stored AS IS with quotes around it.
#*This token identifies a floating point number. Immediatly following the token are 5 bytes which define the number.

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Count
! Description
|-
| 0
| 1
| &1f (note 1)
|-
| 1
| 5
| Floating point number (note 2)
|}

#*#This byte is the BASIC token identifying a floating point number
#*#These 5 bytes define the floating point number.
#*The space symbol is used as a command seperator
#*Variable definitions:
#**The variable definition has the following structure:

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Count
! Description
|-
| 0
| 1
| Token defining variable type
|-
| 2
| 2
| 16-bit Byte offset to variable value within tokenised BASIC program.
|-
| 4
| x
| Variable name
|}

 The 16-bit byte offset is initially set to 0, but is setup when the program is RUN. The offset is stored in little-endian format, with low byte followed by high byte.

#**The token byte defines the variable type (i.e. string, floating point, integer) and the suffix ("$", none and "%").
#**The variable name is stored in the program, with bit 7 of the last character set to "1". e.g. The variable named "abc" will be encoded as 'a','b','c'+&80
#*String values:
#**Each string value is prefixed with &22 token.
#**All strings must be enclosed by double quote symbols (&quot). This symbols define the start and end of the string value.
#**The string value can contain any symbol except the quote ("). i.e. 0-&21, and &23-&ff can be used.
#*After running a program, Tokens of "1d" with 16-bit BASIC program line pointers are changed to token "1e" with the 16-bit memory address of the BASIC line number in memory.

 This table list the BASIC tokens with a &ff prefix byte.

 

{| border="1"
|-
! Code (hexidecimal)
! BASIC keyword
|-
| &00
| ABS
|-
| &01
| ASC
|-
| &02
| ATN
|-
| &03
| CHR$
|-
| &04
| CINT
|-
| &05
| COS
|-
| &06
| CREAL
|-
| &07
| EXP
|-
| &08
| FIX
|-
| &09
| FRE
|-
| &0a
| INKEY
|-
| &0b
| INP
|-
| &0c
| INT
|-
| &0d
| JOY
|-
| &0e
| LEN
|-
| &0f
| LOG
|-
| &10
| LOG10
|-
| &11
| LOWER$
|-
| &12
| PEEK
|-
| &13
| REMAIN
|-
| &14
| SGN
|-
| &15
| SIN
|-
| &16
| SPACE$
|-
| &17
| SQ
|-
| &18
| SQR
|-
| &19
| STR$
|-
| &1a
| TAN
|-
| &1b
| UNT
|-
| &1c
| UPPER$
|-
| &1d
| VAL
|-
|  
| (note 2)
|-
| &40
| EOF
|-
| &41
| ERR
|-
| &42
| HIMEM
|-
| &43
| INKEY$
|-
| &44
| PI
|-
| &45
| RND
|-
| &46
| TIME
|-
| &47
| XPOS
|-
| &48
| YPOS
|-
| &49
| DERR (v1.1)
|-
|  
| (note 3)
|-
| &71
| BIN$
|-
| &72
| DEC$ (v1.1)
|-
| &73
| HEX$
|-
| &74
| INSTR
|-
| &75
| LEFT$
|-
| &76
| MAX
|-
| &77
| MIN
|-
| &78
| POS
|-
| &79
| RIGHT$
|-
| &7a
| ROUND
|-
| &7b
| STRING$
|-
| &7c
| TEST
|-
| &7d
| TESTR
|-
| &7e
| COPYCHR$ (v1.1)
|-
| &7f
| VPOS
|-
|  
| (note 4)
|}

 NOTES:

#*These codes are prefixed by &FF. e.g. The keyword "ABS" is stored as the following sequence: <pre>&FF,&00</pre>
#*Codes &1e...&3f inclusive are not used
#*Codes &4a...&6f inclusive are not used
#*Codes &80...&ff inclusive are not used

== Floating Point data definition ==

A floating point number represents a number with both an integer and fractional part.

 In Amstrad BASIC, a floating point number is stored in base-2 in a normalized form: 1 x 2<exponent> The representation uses 5 bytes and is stored using the following structure:

 

{| border="1"
|-
! Byte
! colspan="8" | 0
! colspan="8" | 1
! colspan="8" | 2
! colspan="8" | 3
! colspan="8" | 4
|-
! Bit
! 7
! 6
! 5
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 1
! 0
! 7
! 6
! 5
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 1
! 0
! 7
! 6
! 5
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 1
! 0
! 7
! 6
! 5
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 1
! 0
! 7
! 6
! 5
! 4
! 3
! 2
! 1
! 0
|-
| Function
| colspan="8" | (LSB) mantissa (bits 31-24)
| colspan="8" | mantissa (bits 23-16)
| colspan="8" | mantissa (bits 15-8)
| colspan="1" | sign
| colspan="7" | (MSB) mantissa (bits 7-0)
| colspan="8" | exponent
|}

=== Sign ===

The sign is represented by bit 7 of byte 3. The value of the sign bit indicates the sign of the floating point number.

#*If the sign bit is "1", then the number is negative.
#*If the sign bit is "0", then the number is positive.

=== Mantissa ===

The mantissa holds the normalized number. The exponent is manipulated so that the most significant bit is always 1. Since it is always 1, it is not stored. It's value is implied by the representation.

=== Exponent ===

The exponent is 8-bit and is stored in byte 4. It is stored with a bias of 128.

#*128-255 are positive exponents,
#*0-127 are negative exponents.

To obtain the signed exponent, you must subtract 128 from the stored exponent. The minimum exponent is 0 and this describes a number of 2^-127. The maximum exponent is 255 and this describes a number of 2^128.

=== floating point example in RAM by MaV ===

The initial figure = 43.375.
An example in BASIC:
<pre>
a!=43.375
READY
PRINT a!
43.375
PRINT @a!
374
FOR I=0 TO 4:PRINT HEX$(PEEK(374+I),2);:NEXT I
0000802D86
</pre>
the result for better readability: 
'''00 00 80 2D 86''' 
The first byte contains the least significant bits of the mantissa, and every following byte up to the fourth byte contain the bits following the first in significance and in exactly that order!

That means that you have to turn around the first four bytes if you want to read the mantissa correctly:
2D800000
or
0010.1101.1000.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000
in binary (the stops are inserted for better readability).

Now the highest significant bit here is 0, so the number is positive.
What's more, you need to clear that bit and substitute the implied highest bit (see description in the link), which is always 1 (regardless of the deleted sign bit!!!).
Thus you get:
AD800000
or
1010.1101.1000.0000.0000.0000.0000.0000
in binary.

The mantissa has an implied decimal point before the number. Since the number is 2^32 bits (i.e. 4 bytes) long you have to divide by 2^32 to get the proper decimal representation.

AD800000 (hex) = 2910846976 (dec)

2910846976 / 2^32 = 0.677734375

The mantissa in a decimal representation is: 0.677734375

Now, the last byte contains the exponent: 86 (hex) or 134 (dec). You need to subtract 128 to get the real exponent, the highest bit tells you that the exponent is positive (1) or negative (0). Your exponent is 6.

0.677734375 * 2^6 = 43.375

'''Another example:''' 
PI is represented in memory as: 
'''A2 DA 0F 49 82''' 
The mantissa is 
490FDAA2 (highest significant bit is zero => number is positive)
The exponent is 
82 (=positive mantissa, value=2 thus multiply mantissa with 2^2) 

Delete the sign bit (which is 0 anyway), and then add the implied 1 bit: 
C90FDAA2 (hex) = 3373259426 (dec) = 1100.1001.0000.1111.1101.1010.1010.0010 (bin) 

Calculate the decimal representation of the mantissa: 
3373259426 / 2^32 = 0,7853981633670628070831298828125 

Then add the exponent (82h - 80h = 2 thus 2^2) 
0,7853981633670628070831298828125 * 2^2 = 3,14159265346825122833251953125 

Voilà! The internal representation of the number PI on the CPC is: 3,14159265346825122833251953125 

If you compare to a (more) correct representation of PI, you'll see that the CPC is correct up to the 9th decimal place: 

CPC: 
3.14159265346825122833251953125 
more correctly: 
3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749445923078164062862089986...

== BASIC floating-point/real variables ==

A floating point (real) variable describes a number with integer and fractional parts.

#*A integer variable is defined with a "!" character postfix.

e.g.
<pre>a! = 3.141592654
</pre>
#*A real number uses 5 bytes of memory as storage. The format is described above.
#*The address of a real variable can be found in BASIC by: <pre>PRINT @a!
</pre>

Where "a" should be replaced with the name of the variable.

 

== BASIC integer variables ==

A integer variable describes a whole number. i.e. a number without any fractional part.

 NOTES:

#*A integer variable is defined with a "%" character postfix.

e.g.
<pre>a% = 3
</pre>
#*A integer variable has a range of -32768 to 32767
#*A integer variable always uses two bytes of memory as storage with the following format:

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Length
! Description
|-
| 0
| 2
| Integer number
|}

#*The address of the integer variable can be found in BASIC by: <pre>PRINT @a%
</pre>

where "a" should be replaced with the name of the variable.

== BASIC string variables ==

A string is a variable which contains a group of characters.

 NOTES:

#**A string variable is defined in BASIC with a "$" character postfix.

e.g.
<pre>a$ = "hello"
</pre>
#**A string variable is described internally by a "string descriptor block" which has the following structure:

{| border="1"
|-
! Offset
! Length
! Description
|-
| 0
| 1
| Length of string in bytes/characters
|-
| 1
| 2
| Location of start of string
|}

#**The address of the "string descriptor block" for the string variable can be found in BASIC by typing: <pre>PRINT @a$
</pre>

replacing "a$" with the name of the string variable.

#**A string uses a minimum of 3 bytes of storage (a 0 character length string) and a maximum of 258 bytes of storage. 3 bytes are used by the "string descriptor block")
#**A string variable can contain any ASCII character code in the range 0-255.
#**A string variable can store a minimum of 0 characters and a maximum of 255 characters.
#**The length of the string in characters is defined in the string descriptor block. The string does not have a termination character.

Locomotive BASIC

2012-09-17T21:14:31Z

Hal 6128: /* Command list */

For other BASIC language versions see the [[:Category:BASIC]]

[[Image:Screenshots-CPC_Start_screen.jpg|thumb|CPC Start Screen showing Locomotive copyright and BASIC version]]

Locomotive BASIC was a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_language BASIC] interpreter for the Amstrad CPC range of computers.

It was availlable directly from in-built ROMs on [[CPC old generation]] and on the [[Plus System Cartridge]] for the [[Plus]] range.

== Description ==

Locomotive BASIC, was one of the best and fastest BASIC implementations of the era. The language benefited both from a clean, well-thought out implementation of the core language by Locomotive, and by the excellent [[firmware]] of the CPC, which lent most of its advanced features to the BASIC.

Unlike the competing Commodore 64, it featured a comprehensive graphic capabilities with its PLOT, DRAW, PAPER, INK, PEN, BORDER and (in BASIC 1.1) FILL commands. It had extensive sound commands, granting control of the [[AY-3-8912]] via the firmware's volume and tone envelope system. With the SOUND command, you could select channels, set envelopes, pitch, noise and volume. That was something unmatched by other computers of that era.

Also there was simple interface for memory management, with MEMORY and LOAD commands. The latter allowed for loading of raw screen data, thus providing easy picture showing. Both through this (combined with CALL, PEEK and POKE) and the firmware's [[RSX]] system, it was easy to mix BASIC and assembly code, thereby speeding up programs by coding the slowest parts directly in machine code. Many successful programs, including games such as [[Radzone]] and applications such as [[PowerPage]], made use of this technique.

With DEF FN, ON variable GOTO and ON variable GOSUB, Locomotive BASIC provided the rudiments of "structured programming", though nowhere near the extent of the PROCedures of [[BBC Basic]].

All in all, if you compare BASIC interpreters of that era, the Locomotive's seems to be the best 'all-rounder' regarding the combination of speed and complexity, and still some of its features were unmatched by others.

If you are interested in more information about the different versions of the CPC's BASIC and the technical details, you can have a look at the article "[[Technical information about Locomotive BASIC]]".

== History ==

The CPC implementation of Locomotive BASIC was developed directly from [[Locomotive Software]]'s existing Z80 BASIC. The existence of this is cited as one of the reasons Locomotive requested that [[Amstrad]] change the CPC's processor from a 6502 to a [[Z80]].

The 464 shipped with BASIC 1.0 on ROM.

The language was revised and debugged for the 664, 6128 and Plus machines to become BASIC 1.1. Changes were minor but significant for the programmer, and included:

* DEC$ bug removed (in BASIC 1.0, it required two opening brackets and was undocumented)
* Better handling of string arguments to RSXs (|DIR,"*.BAS" rather than a$="*.BAS":|DIR,@a$)
* DATA statements can appear anywhere within a line; in BASIC 1.0, they had to be at the end of a line
* FILL command (fill area with solid colour)
* COPYCHR$ function (fetch character from screen)
* Better garbage collection
* Some number-handling bugs removed (e.g. in FOR loops with negative start/end values)
* FRAME (CALL &BD19)
* Extra, optional 'plotting mode' parameter for DRAW/PLOT commands (supported only through control codes on BASIC 1.0)
* GRAPHICS PAPER, GRAPHICS PEN commands
* ON BREAK CONT (disable ESCape)
* CLEAR INPUT (flush keyboard buffer)
* The AUTO command show the whole line if it exist, it only printed a * on the 464

Some parts of 'BASIC' were actually housed in the firmware ROM, but were not officially accessible to other programs. This included the line editor.

The 'pure BASIC' parts of Locomotive BASIC - i.e. those not concerned with CPC-specific firmware and hardware features - were upgraded to become Mallard BASIC, the CP/M language shipped with the [[PCW]]. This also featured exceptionally advanced random-access file handling, a feature missing from the CPC.

== Command list ==

=== Commands and operators ===

==== <code>AFTER </code>‹time delay›[<code>,</code>‹timer number›]<code> GOSUB </code>‹line number› ====
: Waits for ‹time delay›/50 seconds and then jumps NON-RECURRING to the subroutine at ‹line number› (see also "EVERY i[,t] GOSUB line").

==== <code>AUTO </code>[‹line number›][<code>,</code>‹increment›] ====
: Automatically generates line numbers starting at ‹line number› with ‹increment› after each entered line number. Use '''[ESC]''' to leave AUTO mode. Default values for ‹line number› and ‹increment› are 10.

: Example:

: <code>AUTO 100,5 :REM generates line numbers 100, 105, 110...</code>

==== <code>BORDER </code>‹colour›[<code>,</code>‹colour›] ====
: Changes the colour of the border. If the second argument is supplied the border flashes between the two colours.

==== <code>CALL </code>‹address expression›[<code>,</code>‹list of: parameter›] ====
: Allows a machine code routine to be called by BASIC. Variables, string values and constants can be passed to the routine. Values of any supported type can be passed back by supplying a variable with <code>@</code> in front of it. This passes the address of the variable to the routine although it doesn't implicitly know the data type.
: Example:

: <code>CALL 0 :REM resets the computer completely</code>

==== <code>CAT</code> ====
: Displays the names of the files on the tape or disc. Tape files are displayed in the order they are encountered. Disc files are sorted alphabetically by ACSII code. Only files matching the current user are displayed. Files marked as system are not displayed.
: Examples:

: <code>CAT :REM lists all disc files in alpha-numeric (ASCII) order</code>
: <code>|TAPE :CAT :REM lists names of all tape files in their storage order</code>

==== <code>CHAIN </code>‹file name›[<code>,</code>‹line number expression›] ====

:Enables the specified program to be loaded and RUN automatically. If the optional parameter ‹line number expression› is specified, the program execution will commence from that line.

==== <code>CHAIN MERGE </code>‹file name›[<code>,</code>‹line number expression› | [<code>,</code>[‹line number expression›]<code>,DELETE</code> ‹line number range›]] ====

:Loads the specified program from tape or disc, merges it into the program in memory, and starts execution of the merged program. The parameter <code>DELETE</code> ‹line number range› is used to delete part of the original program before running it, if required.

==== <code>CLEAR</code> ====
: Clears all variables from memory, leaving the program in memory unchanged. All open files are abandoned.
: The command clear inside a subroutine (GOSUB... RETURN) will also clear the "stack pointer" address of the gosub heap. That means that a RETURN won't work and a GOTO has to be used instead.

==== <code>CLG </code>[‹masked ink›] ====
: Clears the graphics screen to colour specified by ‹masked ink›. If parameter ‹masked ink› is not specified then the graphics screen is cleared to the colour specified by the GRAPHICS PAPER statement.

==== <code>CLOSEIN</code> ====
: Closes any input file (tape or disc).

==== <code>CLOSEOUT</code> ====
: Closes any output file (tape or disc).

==== <code>CLS</code> [<code>#</code>‹stream expression›]====
: Clears the window specified by ‹stream expression›. If ‹stream expression› is omitted it defaults to #0 (usually the whole screen). The text cursor of the stream is moved to the upper left corner.

==== <code>CONT</code> ====
: CONTinues program execution interrupted either by [ESC] [ESC] or as a result of STOP within a program. A program cannot be continued after being modified.

==== <code>CURSOR </code>‹expression› ====
: ‹expression› must be either 0 or 1.

==== <code>DATA x1[,x2,x3...]</code> ====
: Defines a data ''section'' to be used by <tt>READ</tt> calls.
: Data values can be of any type (integer, real or string) as long as the corresponding <tt>READ</tt> calls use a variable of the right type.

:Example:

<pre>
10 DATA "Hello, world!", 42
20 READ message$:PRINT message$
30 READ answer:PRINT "The answer is:";answer
</pre>

:''See also:'' <tt>READ</tt>, <tt>RESTORE</tt>

==== <code>DEF</code> ====
: DEF means "define" and comes along with defining a function in case of DEF FN or defining variables in case of DEFREAL, DEFINT or DEFSTR.
: DEF FN must come before using the statement FN.
: DEF with a variable declaration should come before using a variable.
: (see also FN)

==== <code>DEFINT letter range</code> ====

: Forces all variables(s) starting with the specified letter(s) to be string variables. The s does not need to be added to DEFSTR variable names.

: Example:

<pre>
10 DEFSTR N - sets all variables starting with letter N as strings.
</pre>

==== <code>DEFREAL</code> ====
: Sets the default for variable(s) with the specified first letter(s) to a floating point figure. The letter range could be an inclusive range A-Z

==== <code>DEFSTR</code> ====

: Sets the default for variable(s) with the specified first letter(s) to integer. The letter range could be an inclusive range A-Z

: Example:

<pre>
10 DEFINT F,S ..... (or 10 DEFINT A-Z)
20 FIRST=111.11:SECOND=22.2
30 PRINT FIRST,SECOND - prints 111 22
</pre>

==== <code>DEG</code> ====
: Switch to degrees mode for trigonometric functions (<tt>SIN</tt>, <tt>COS</tt>...).
: ''See also:'' <tt>RAD</tt>

==== <code>DELETE [first line][-[last line]]</code> ====
: Deletes the current program completely (without arguments) or only the given line or line range. Even
: <code>DELETE -</code>
: is legal, it has the same effect as
: <code>DELETE</code>
: The lines specified do not have to exist, all lines matching the range will be deleted and having no matches does not cause an error.

==== <code>DI</code> ====
: Disables interrupts (but not[ESC]) until re-enabled by EI command or by RETURN at end of an interrupts service routine.
: This means that DI (if it's activated in a subroutine) is useful helping a low-priority-interrupt not to be stopped by a higher-priority-interrupt. RETURN then re-enable the interrupt without EI.

==== <code>DIM a[%|!|$](d1[,d2[,...]])</code> ====

: Creates array <code>a</code> with single or multiple dimensions. You may optionally specify integer (<code>%</code>), real (<code>!</code>) or string (<code>$</code>) type otherwise it defaults to the current type set for the first letter of the array name. <code>d1</code> is size of first dimension-1, <code>d2</code> is size of second dimension-1 and so on. <code>DIM x(10)</code> will create an array with 11 elements, <code>x(0)</code> is the first element, <code>x(10)</code> is the eleventh and last. You can specify as many dimensions as will fit on one 255 character line, which is a maximum of 125. Trying to create an array that already exists will generate an <code>Array already dimensioned</code> error. If an array is not specified by <code>DIM</code> before being accessed, each dimension value defaults to 10. The maximum dimensions that can be created this way is three.

==== <code>DRAW x,y[,i1 | ,[i1],i2]</code> ====

: Draws a line from the current cursor position to position x,y. i1 specifies colour, i2 is the drawing style.

<pre>
i2 = 0 normal colour i2 = 2 AND colour
i2 = 1 XOR colour i2 = 3 OR colour
</pre>

Example:

<code>
: CLG 2
: DRAW 500,400,0 :REM draws a line from 0,0 to 500,400
</code>

==== <code>DRAWR xr, yr, [[i1][,i2]]</code> ====

: Draws a line from current graphics cursor position to current cursor x position + xr, current cursor y position + yr. i1 and i2 as DRAW.
:Example:

<pre>
Move 200,200
DRAWR 100,100,0 - draws a line from 200,200 to 300,300
</pre>

==== <code>EDIT line</code> ====
: Copies one program line to screen in edition mode.

==== <code>EI</code> ====
: Enable interrupts which have been disabled by DI

==== <code>END</code> ====
: Indicates end of program

==== <code>ENT</code> ====
:The ENT command define the TONE shape of a sound which means manipulating the frequency in a certain range.
:The command could looks like:
<pre>
ENT NUMBER,STEPS?,VERTICAL?,HORIZONTAL?
</pre>
:It is possible to define 15 different envelope shapes. So '''NUMBER''' could be 1-15.

:Each '''?''' stands for up to five sections (1-5), where each STEP<>VERTICAL<>HORIZONTAL with the same '''?''' are belong together.

:'''STEP:''' means how many steps in each section (0-127) > one step is 1/100 of a second!
:'''VERTICAL''': means how big is the step size from bottom to top (-128 to 127)
:'''HORIZONTAL''': means how big is the step size from left to right (0-255)

==== <code>ENV</code> ====
:The ENV command define the VOLUME shape of a sound which means manipulating the loudness in a certain range.
:The command could looks like:
<pre>
ENV NUMBER,STEPS?,VERTICAL?,HORIZONTAL?
</pre>
:It is possible to define 15 different envelope shapes. So '''NUMBER''' could be 1-15.

:Each '''?''' stands for up to five sections (1-5), where each STEP<>VERTICAL<>HORIZONTAL with the same '''?''' are belong together.

:'''STEP:''' means how many steps in each section (0-127) > one step is 1/100 of a second!
:'''VERTICAL''': means how big is the step size from bottom to top (-128 to 127)
:'''HORIZONTAL''': means how big is the step size from left to right (0-255)

==== <code>ERASE v1[% | ! | $][,v2[% | ! | $][,...]]</code> ====
: Erases the specified array(s) and frees the memory used. Must specify existing array(s) or an <code>Improper argument</code> error will be generated.

==== <code>ERL</code> ====

: Returns the line number of the last error encountered.

==== <code>ERROR i</code> ====
: Returns the error message whose error code number is i.

==== <code>EVERY i[,t] GOSUB ln</code> ====

: BASIC branches to the subroutine at line ln EVERY (reccuring) i/50 seconds. (see also "AFTER i[,t] GOSUB line")

: There are 4 delay timers from 0 to 3 which can be specified with ‹timer number›. If omitted ‹timer number› defaults to 0.
: In the case of parallel task has 3 the highest and 0 the lowest priority.
: With DI or EI you can disable or enable the timing interrupt. With REMAIN <timer number> you can also disable an AFTER or EVERY construct and stores the "remaining" time (> REMAIN)
: Interrupts run as long as the main loop / program runs, even the main programm is paused > press ESC only '''once''' not twice for a break.
: It is important to know or realise that low-priority-interrupts which occurs simultanously to higher-priority-interrupts are not lost. Their task remains or handled again after finishing the higher-prio interrupt.

<pre>
10 REM > interrupts
20 EVERY 50,0 GOSUB 100: REM > lowest priority
30 EVERY 100,1 GOSUB 200
40 EVERY 200,2 GOSUB 300:
50 AFTER 1000,3 GOSUB 400: REM > highest priority
60 WHILE flag=0
70 a=a+1:print a
80 WEND
90 END
100 REM #0
110 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 0":PEN 1
120 RETURN
200 REM #1
210 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 1":PEN 1
220 RETURN
300 REM #2
310 PEN 2:PRINT "timer 2":PEN 1
320 RETURN
400 REM #3
410 flag=1:PEN 2:PRINT "no more interrupts..."
420 RETURN
</pre>

: Hint: Timing with interrupts is important, especially if more than one interrupts run. If the interval of a subroutine driven by an interrupt is too long than the processor can never get back to deal the main program again. Work out timing by measuring the subroutine or by trial and error.
: There are system internal interrupts (highest level) which cannot be influenced by BASIC interrupts (e.g. keyboard scan > BREAK key.)
: The next level of sytem internal interrupts CAN be influenced by BASIC interrupts. For example the sound queue which will be created by "ON SQ <chanel> GOSUB <line>". Those sound interrupts have an independent time tricker but their priority is parallel to the second priority times of BASICs interrupts. Therefore interrupts with timer 3 could "interrupt" them.

==== <code>FILL i</code> ====
: Fills an area of a graphics screen i colour i (0-15). Default value of i is the current graphics pen colour. Only available in Basic 1.1.

==== <code>FN</code> ====
:BASIC allows the program to define and use simple value returning functions. DEF FuNction is the definition part of this mechanism and creates program-specific function which works within the
:program in the same way as a function such a COS operates as a built-in function of BASIC. It may be invoked throughout the program. Variable types must be consistent and the DEF FN
:command should be written in part of the program outside the execution loop.

:Syntax : DEF FN<name>[(<formal parameters>)]=<general expression>

:Example: ''"with the definition of..."''
<pre>
10 gn=9.80665
20 DEF FNgrv=s0+v0*t+0.5*gn*t^2
30 s0=0:v0=0:t=5
40 PRINT "...after";t;"seconds your dropped stone falls";FNgrv;"metres"
</pre>
:''"the results are..."''
<pre>
:...after 5 seconds your dropped stone falls 122.58315 metres
</pre>

==== <code>FOR TO STEP NEXT</code> ====
: Creating a counting loop (control strucutre) with a starting condition. Inside the counting loop one or more commands will be executed.
: The loop consists of of following specifications:

: 1. FOR
: 2. ''a control variable''
: 3. =
: 4. ''starting value''
: 5. TO
: 6. ''target value''
: 7. STEP [optional]
: 8. ''increment / step size''
: ''... instructions between''
: 9. NEXT
: 10. ''control variable'' [optional]

: You have to use the command STEP if you wish to count backwards. It's good to name the ''control variable'' after NEXT for readability and better program style.
: After each loop the computer checks internaly if the ''target value'' has been reached (like an IF ... THEN ... ELSE instruction). If the target value is reached NEXT closes the loop and calculates another step, so the ''control variable'' will be changed last time.
: The default STEP value - if not specified - is one (1).

: Example:
<pre>
10 FOR I=1 TO 10
20 PRINT I;
30 NEXT I
40 PRINT I
RUN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
READY
</pre>

==== <code>FRAME</code> ====
: Smooths character and graphics movement and reduces flicker (waits for a VSYNC signal). Only available in Basic 1.1. On a CPC 464 you can use CALL &BD19 instead.

==== <code>GOSUB i</code> ====

: Jumps to subroutine which is given as argument.
: ''Example:''

<pre>
10 PRINT "Calling subroutine"
20 GOSUB 100
30 PRINT "Back from subroutine"
40 END
100 REM Begin of the subroutine
110 PRINT "Subroutine started"
120 RETURN
</pre>

==== <code>GOTO i</code> ====
: Jumps to the line number which is given as argument.
: ''Example:''
<pre>
10 GOTO 100
20 REM not executed
30 REM not executed
100 PRINT "Hello World!"
</pre>
: GOTO is the simplest form of a jump or creating a loop '''without''' condition controll.
: ''Example: (unconditional and endless loop)''
<pre>
10 PRINT "#";
20 GOTO 10
</pre>
: Combine the GOTO command with an IF...THEN...ELSE instruction for creating a condition-controlled loop with the '''test at the end'''. Helpful because the Locomotive Basic has no practical DO...WHILE... loop.
: ''Example: (condition at the end)''
<pre>
10 I=1
20 PRINT I
30 I=I+1
40 IF I<25 THEN GOTO 10
50 END
</pre>

==== <code>GRAPHICS</code> ====
: ...works only in combination with the command PEN or PAPER to set the plotting/drawing pen or background.

==== <code>IF THEN ELSE</code> ====
: Asks for a choice with the '''IF...THEN...ELSE''' statement.
: '''IF''' compares the entry condition in a logical way
: '''THEN''' contains instruction if the comparison is true
: '''ELSE''' contains instruction if it's false.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 INPUT "guess a figure:",f
20 IF f=10 THEN PRINT "right": END: ELSE GOTO 10
</pre>
: In case of nested choices there's a possibility to that with an IF...THEN instruction but not very recommended:
<pre>
10 INPUT "guess a figure:",f
20 IF f=10 THEN PRINT "right": END: ELSE IF f<10 THEN PRINT "too small" ELSE PRINT "too big"
30 GOTO 10
</pre>
:Other nested structures like IF...THEN...'''ELSE...ELSE''' won't work first because the Locomotive Basic only looks after the first ELSE instruction found and can't execute more single commands as a block for a certain condition in comparision to e.g. "PASCAL" > begin...end-block, "C" > {...}-block.

==== <code>INK</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>INPUT[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>KEY</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>LET</code> ====
: Used to define variables. You don't need to use the ''LET'' command because it is just a command which was added for compatibility reasons.
: ''Example:''
<pre>
10 LET a$ = "hello world"
20 PRINT a$
</pre>

==== <code>LINE INPUT [#‹stream expression›][,]</code>‹variable›[<code>,</code>‹variable›] ====
: [...]

==== <code>LIST </code>[‹line number›][<code>-</code>[‹line number›]], [#‹stream expression›]====
: A command for listing the Basic program code.
: Possibility for manipulating display is using line numbers with a minus symbol.
: Example:
<pre>
LIST 100-
</pre>
: List every line after line number 100.
<pre>
LIST -100
</pre>
: List every line until line number 100 has reached.
<pre>
LIST 100-200
</pre>
: List every line between line number 100 and 200 included

: With the help of seperate window definitions it is possible to print out long listings, better differents parts / slices of it into different window predefined
: Example:
<pre>
LIST 1000-1100,#1
LIST 3000-3100,#2
</pre>
: ...prints out two parts of one program out into two windows (if they are defined well)

==== <code>LOAD ‹file name›[<code>,</code>‹address›] ====
: [...]

==== <code>LOCATE[#‹stream expression›][,] x,y</code> ====

: Moves the text cursor to the x,y location.

: x starts at 1 on the left and goes up to 20 (in mode 0), 40 (in mode 1) or 80 (in mode 2).

: y starts at 1 at the top and ends at 25 at the bottom.

==== <code>MASK [i1][,i2]</code> ====

: Sets bits in each adjacent group of 8 pixel on (1) or off (0) according to binary value of i1 (0-255). i2 determines whether the first point of the line is to plotted (1) or not (0).

:Example:

<pre>
10 CLG 2:MASK 1:MOVE 0,0:DRAW 500,400
20 MASK 15:MOVE 0,0:DRAW 500,400
</pre>

==== <code>MEMORY add</code> ====

: Allocates the amount of memory to be used by BASIC by setting the address of the highest byte it may use.

==== <code>MERGE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>MID$</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>MODE</code> ====
: Changes the screen mode: MODE 0 is 160x200 in 16 colors, MODE 1 is 320x200 4 colors, MODE 2 is 640x200 2 colors and MODE 3 is 160x200 in 4 colors.

==== <code>MOVE x,y [[,i1][,i2]]</code> ====

: Moves the graphic cursor to position x,y. The parameter i1 may be used to change the pen (drawing) colour. The parameter i2 specifies the logical colour, as in DRAW.

==== <code>MOVER</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>NEW</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>ON BREAK CONT</code> ====

: Prevents the interruption of program execution by the ESC key.

==== <code>ON BREAK GOSUB ln</code> ====

: Passes control to subroutine at line ln when ESC ESC pressed.

==== <code>ON BREAK STOP</code> ====

: Restores normal function of ESC key during program execution.

==== <code>ON ERROR GOTO ln</code> ====

: Passes the control to line ln if an error is detected in the program.

: ON ERROR GOTO 0, Turns of the error trap, and restores normal error processing.

==== <code>ON variable GOTO ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====

: In case of passing more choices '''ON variable GOTO ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...''' points to a table with the jumping target.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 PRINT "1. LOAD - 2. SAVE - 3. EXIT"
20 INPUT choice
30 ON choice GOTO 1000, 2000, 3000
40 CLS: GOTO 10
1000 PRINT "1. LOAD":END
2000 PRINT "2. SAVE":END
3000 END
</pre>
:In case that the variable ''choice'' won't fullfil the condition (in a range between line 0 and 65535) the next instruction will be executed (here: Line 40). If "choice" is smaller than 0 an error will occur.

==== <code>ON variable GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====

: In case of passing more choices targeting to SUBROUTINES '''ON variable GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...''' points to a jumping table.
: '''Example:'''
<pre>
10 PRINT "1. LOAD - 2. SAVE - 3. EXIT"
20 INPUT choice
30 ON choice GOSUB 1000, 2000, 3000
40 CLS: GOTO 10
1000 PRINT "1. LOAD":RETURN
2000 PRINT "2. SAVE":RETURN
3000 END
</pre>
:In case that the variable ''choice'' won't fullfil the condition (in a range between line 0 and 65535) the next instruction will be executed (here: Line 40). If "choice" is smaller than 0 an error will occur.

==== <code>ON SQ(x) GOSUB ln x1, x2, x3, x4, ...</code> ====
:ON SQ(x) can trigger an interrupt when e.g. a space or free channel in queue.
:Using that command is a one way interrupt trigger and shouldn't be mixed with EVERY or AFTER commands.

:See also the SQ(x) command for more details.

==== <code>OPENIN "datafile"</code> ====

: Opens the specified data file for reading. It have to be an ASCII file. ( The command closein closes reading data file. )

==== <code>OPENOUT "datafile"</code> ====
: Opens the specified data file for writing. It writes an ASCII file. (To close writing use the command closein.)

==== <code>ORIGIN</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>OUT add,i</code> ====

: Outputs the value of i (0-255) to the I/O address add.

==== <code>PAPER[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PEN[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PLOT</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>PLOTR</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>POKE add</code> ====

: Alters contents of memory location add to value i (0-255)

==== <code>PRINT[#‹stream expression›][,]</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>RAD</code> ====
: Switch to radians mode for trigonometric functions (<tt>SIN</tt>, <tt>COS</tt>...).

: ''See also:'' <tt>DEG</tt>

==== <code>RANDOMIZE [seed]</code> ====

: Resets the pseudo-random generator to the given seed. What is strange is that if no seed is given, one is interactively prompted for.

: A common idiom to have a ''random'' random seed is to do:

<pre>
RANDOMIZE TIME
</pre>

The algorithm used for randomizing is the following: the generator starts with the seed, adds 1, multiplies by 75 (fiddle factor), divides by 65537 and then uses the remainder -1.

==== <code>READ variable</code> ====
: Gets the next data item (from <tt>DATA</tt> commands), stores it in the given variable and moves to the next item.
The variable must be of the correct type.

''See also:'' <tt>DATA</tt>, <tt>RESTORE</tt>

==== <code>RELEASE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>REM [any text]</code> ====
: Introduces a comment.

==== <code>RENUM </code>[‹newLine›][<code>,</code>‹oldLine› | <code>,</code>[‹oldLine›]<code>,</code>‹step›] ====
: Renumbers the lines of the current program.

: By default, the whole program is renumbered starting at line 10 with multiples of ten. Any parameter that is left out defaults to 10. It is important to note that ''jumps'' (<code>GOTO</code>, <code>GOSUB</code> and the like) are automatically converted to the new line numbers.

: The whole set of parameters can be used to renumber only the last part of a program.

: Example:

<pre>
10 GOTO 20
20 GOTO 30
30 GOTO 10
</pre>

: becomes, after calling <code>RENUM 100,20,5</code>

<pre>
10 GOTO 100
100 GOTO 105
105 GOTO 10
</pre>

==== <code>RESTORE [line]</code> ====

: Resets the data pointer used by <tt>READ</tt>. When used without parameters, resets the pointer to the first data in the program. Otherwise, resets the pointer to the given line number.

: Example:

<pre>
10 DATA 10,11,12,13,14
20 DATA 20
READ i:PRINT i
10
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
11
Ready
RESTORE
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
10
Ready
RESTORE 20
Ready
READ i:PRINT i
20
Ready
</pre>

: ''See also:'' <tt>DATA</tt>, <tt>READ</tt>

==== <code>RESUME</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>RETURN</code> ====

: Terminates a subroutine and returns control to the line following the GOSUB call (see GOSUB)

==== <code>RUN [line]</code> ====
: Runs the current program, optionally starting at a given line. If no line number is given, starts at the first line.

==== <code>SAVE</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>SOUND</code> ====
: the SOUND command has following shape:
: SOUND '''C'''hannel,'''P'''eriod,'''D'''uration,'''V'''olume,Volume-'''Env'''elope,'''T'''one-'''En'''velope,'''N'''oise

:'''C:''' Selecting channel is done bitwise (combinations are possible of course):

<pre>
(Bit 0) &x00000001 = 1 = channel A (middle)
(Bit 1) &x00000010 = 2 = channel B (left)
(Bit 2) &x00000100 = 4 = channel C (right)
</pre>
:more function about channel are
<pre>
(Bit 3) &x00001000 = 8 = Rendezvous with channel A
(Bit 4) &x00010000 = 16 = Rendesvous with channel B
(Bit 5) &x00100000 = 32 = Rendesvous with channel C
(Bit 6) &x01000000 = 64 = Hold
(Bit 7) &x10000000 = 128 = Flush
</pre>
:'''P:''' the period number can be a figure between 0 and 4095 (2^12-1... 12 means that we have 12 tones (inclusive half-tones) in nine octaves on the CPC in sum and their distance between is the twelves square root of two), where 8 octaves are available. E.g. Octave 0 starts on middle C with number 478.
: To calculate the period you can use following formula: '''period=1,000,000/(16*frequency)''' or in short '''period=(65,000/frequency)'''
: (e.g. the note "A" with the frequency 440 Hz has the period 142 on the CPC)

:'''D:''' the duration of the note is measured in 1/100th of a second and can be any positive number in the range 1-32,767. 0 and negative number are in combination with ENT and ENV commands usefull. A negative number means repititions.

:'''V:''' the volume number range from 0-7 on a CPC 464 (BASIC 1.0) or 0-15 on a CPC664/6128 (BASIC 1.1)

:'''ENV:''' and '''ENT:''' For shaping the sound ENV (Volume) and ENT (Frequency) commands are available. The relation between SOUND and those commands comes with a figure between 1 to 15 for ENV (5th parameter) and 1 to 15 for ENT (6th parameter).

:'''N:''' the seventh parameter can be used for blending in noise between the range of 0-15 (BASIC 1.0) or 0-30 (BASIC 1.1). The higher the number the 'deeper' or 'dirty' is the noise.

==== <code>SPC <n></code> ====
: in conjunction with PRINT the SPC command prints out a certain number (n) of spaces.
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT "Hello";SPC(10);"World";
Hello World
</pre>

==== <code>SPEED <n1,n2> </code> ====
: ...in conjunction with the INK command SPEED defines the frequency of colour changes if a colour change was defined. The duration is calculated by n1=... or n2 =duration/50 seconds.

==== <code>SQ (channel)</code> ====

: Returns a bit significant integer showing state of the sound queue for specified channel where channel 1,2,3, = A, B, C

:Bits 0,1 and 2 Number of free entries in the queue
:Bits 3,4 and 5 Redezvous state at head of the queue
:Bit 6 Head of the queue is held
:Bit 7 Channel is currently active

==== <code>STOP</code> ====

: Breaks program execution at line containing the STOP statement. The message '''BREAK in''' is output with the line number.

==== <code>SWAP</code> ====
: SWAP works only in combination with the window command. Every error or status messages from the operating system will be displayed normaly on WINDOW#0 (=''main'' window). WINDOW SWAP changes the ''main'' window to the desired target window.
: Example (if a window with number 4 was defined before...):
<pre>
WINDOW SWAP 0,4
</pre>

==== <code>SYMBOL n,i1[,i2,i3,i4,i5,i6,i7,i8]</code> ====

: Redefines the appearance of the character at index n.
: Each of the following eight integers defines the contents of one pixel row, starting at the top of the character.
: Each character fits in an 8x8 pixel grid.
: Missing lines are considered as empty.

: Example:

<pre>
SYMBOL 255,255,129,129,129,129,129,129,255
PRINT CHR$(255)
</pre>

: Defines character 255 to look like an empty square and prints it.

: Initially, only characters with indices ranging from 240 to 255 can be redefined.
: See also <tt>SYMBOL AFTER</tt> to allow redefinition of arbitrary characters.

==== <code>SYMBOL AFTER n</code> ====
: Allows the redefinition of character symbols from index n included.

: Symbol redefinitions are made using the SYMBOL command above.
: Initially, only symbols from index 240 to 255 can be redefined. This initial situation can be restored with <tt>SYMBOL AFTER 240</tt>. Symbol previously redefined are restored to their original appearance.

==== <code>TAB</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>TAG [#st]</code> ====

: Allows text to print at graphics cursor position.
: see TAGOFF

==== <code>TAGOFF [#st]</code> ====

: Directs text to stream st printing it at previous text cursor position.

==== <code>TROFF</code> ====

: Turns off the program flow trace (see TRON)

==== <code>TRON</code> ====

: Turns on the program flow trace for debugging. Causes the line number of each statement executed to be displayed.

==== <code>USING</code> ====
: The USING assignement defines the format of the PRINT output. Its appointment happens by characters where each has a certain meaning.

'''Numbers / Figures'''
: the character:
:'''#''' stands for a figure between 0 - 9
:'''.''' stands for a decimal point
:'''+''' generates a positive sign if the value is positive
:'''-''' generates a negative sign if the value is nagative
:'''**''' generates a asterix for each empty "location" before the printed character
:'''$$''' generates a Dollar characters before the printed character (the same with the pound note)
:''',''' generates a comma every each three decimals (thousands per figure) and has to be set before the decimal point or at the end if without a decimal point.
:^ generates a scientific notation (with exponents) and a the end of the format appointment

'''Strings'''
: the character:
:'''!''' prints out only the first character
:'''\xxx\''' prints out only with x-numbers defined length of the string (from left to right). x means a blank sign made with the space bar
:'''&''' the whole string is printed out as given (unknown function)

: a print output (numbers) with "%" in the beginning shows that not enough positions has to be declared (at all or before the decimal point).

: Example:
<pre>
10 figure=123456789
20 word$="Hello"
30 print using "+**,##########";figure
40 print using "\ \";word$

creates following output:

*****+12,345,679
Hel
</pre>

==== <code>WAIT add, i1[,i2]</code> ====

: Waits until the I/O port at add returns a value (0-255). The value returned is XORed with i2 and the ANDed with i1. This is repeated until a non-zero result occurs.

==== <code>WHILE WEND</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>WIDTH</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>WINDOW[#‹stream expression›],[L],[R],[T],[B]</code> ====
: It is possible to define in BASIC eight (8) independent windows for text output. Overlapping is possible.

: #STREAM: eight window are possible. No. zero (0) is the main window where error or status messages were put out by default.
: each position is included inside the window
: L = left column / R = right column (dependent of the mode 0 = 20 / 1 = 40 / 2 = 80)
: T = top row / B = bottom row (always from 1 to 25)

: Example:
<pre>
MODE 1
WINDOW#1,1,40,1,6
</pre>
: ...defines the first top quarter of the screen for window No. 1

==== <code>WRITE [#st,] v[$], v[$]</code> ====

: Writes the values of the specified variable to the specified stream.

: Example:

<pre>
10 OPENOUT "DUMMY"
20 INPUT A$,A
30 WRITE #9,A$,A
40 CLOSEOUT
</pre>

==== <code>ZONE i</code> ====

: Changes the width of the print zone. Default is 13.
: Example:
<pre>
10 MODE 2
20 PRINT"normal zone (13)"
30 PRINT 1,2,3,4
RUN
normal zone(13)
1 2 3 4
READY
20 PRINT"now with different zone(5)"
30 ZONE 5
40 PRINT 1,2,3,4
RUN
now with different zone(5)
1 2 3 4
READY
</pre>

=== Operators ===
: A logical status in Locomotive Basic will be represented by a "-1" for TRUE and by a "0" for FALSE.
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT (1=1)
-1
PRINT (1=2)
0
</pre>
==== <code>AND</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the AND Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
</pre>
: Example:
<pre>
PRINT 128 AND 64
0
</pre>
: looking at the BIT combination for a better understanding:
<pre>
10000000
AND 01000000
================
= 00000000
</pre>
: even in BASIC it is possible to manipulate single BITs although there are no special commands but AND, OR and XOR.
: first an example for a loop with an increasing counter WITHOUT an AND:
<pre>
10 counter=0
20 counter=counter+1
30 IF counter=32 THEN counter=0
40 GOTO 20
</pre>
: then a shorter example WITH and AND:
<pre>
10 counter=0
20 counter=(counter+1) AND 31
30 GOTO 20
</pre>
: in the second example all more significant BITs will be deleted (a common method in assembler programming)
: Beware: it only works here with BIT/number conditions one figure smaller than 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63 and 127
==== <code>MOD</code> ====
: [...]

==== <code>NOT</code> ====
: '''NOT''' executes a bit for bit '''negation''' of the current value. The output is a 16-Bit-Word.
:
:'''Example:'''
<pre>
10 value1=1
20 value2=NOT value1
30 PRINT value2
run
-2
</pre>
:for a better understanding...
<pre>
10 value1=1
20 PRINT HEX$(value1):PRINT BIN$(value1,8)
30 value2=NOT value1
40 PRINT HEX$(value2):PRINT BIN$(value2,8)
run
1
00000001
FFFE
1111111111111110
</pre>

==== <code>OR</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the OR Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
</pre>
==== <code>XOR</code> ====
: Possible combinations with the XOR Function:
<pre>
NPUT1 INPUT2 OUTPUT
======================
TRUE TRUE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
</pre>

=== Functions ===

==== <code>ABS (n)</code> ====
: Returns the absolute value of n by ignoring the sign value.

: Example

<pre>
PRINT ABS(-3.5) - prints 3.5
</pre>

==== <code>ASC (s)</code> ====

: Returns ASCII code number of first character of string s

==== <code>ATN (n)</code> ====
: Returns the arctangent of n.

==== <code>BIN$ (i1,[i2])</code> ====
: Returns binary representation of i1 between -32768 and 65535. The number of binary digits (0s and 1s) is specified by i2 (0-16)
: Example:

<pre>
PRINT BIN$(66,8) - prints 01000010
</pre>

==== <code>CHR$ (n)</code> ====
: Returns the character for a given index n. For instance CHR$(65) returns the character 'A'. Valid indices range from 0 (zero) to 255.

: As an example, try the following basic program :

<pre>10 print chr$(208+rnd(2));:goto 10</pre>

: It will draw a random maze with characters 208 and 209, which are an horizontal and a vertical bar.
:
:The CHR$ code between 0 and 31 will not print out a character but perform a function:
<pre>
===============================================================================
| VALUE | NAME | PARAMETERS | EFFECT |
===============================================================================
| DEC | HEX | | | |
===============================================================================
| 0 | &00 | NUL | NONE | DOES NOTHING |
| 1 | &01 | SOH | 0-255 | PRINTS CHARACTER TO SCREEN |
| 2 | &02 | STX | NONE | TURNS TEXT CURSOR OFF |
| 3 | &03 | ETX | NONE | TURNS TEXT CURSOR ON IN IMMEDIATE |
| | | | | MODE |
| 4 | &04 | EOT | 0-2 | SET SCREEN MODE |
| 5 | &05 | ENQ | 0-255 | PRINT CHARACTER AT GRAPHICS CURS. |
| 6 | &06 | ACK | NONE | TURNS ON TEXT SCREEN (SEE ALSO CHR$(21))|
| 7 | &07 | BEL | NONE | MAKE A SHORT BEEP |
| 8 | &08 | BS | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR BACK ONE CHARACTER |
| 9 | &09 | TAB | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR FORWARD ONE CHARACTER |
| 10 | &0A | LF | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR DOWN ONE CHARACTER |
| 11 | &0B | VT | NONE | MOVES TEXT CURSOR UP ONE CHARACTER |
| 12 | &0C | FF | NONE | CLEARS SCREEN OR WINDOWS (= CLS) |
| 13 | &0D | CR | NONE | MOVES CURSOR TO LEFT EDGE OF WINDOW ON |
| | | | | CURRENT LINE |
| 14 | &0E | SO | 0-15 | SETS PAPER COLOUR |
| 15 | &0F | SI | 0-15 | SETS PEN COLOUR |
| 16 | &10 | DLE | NONE | DELETES CHARACTER UNDER TEXT CURSOR |
| 17 | &11 | DC1 | NONE | CLEARS LINE FROM LEFT OF WINDOW UP TO |
| | | | | AND INCLUDING CURRENT CHARACTER |
| 18 | &12 | DC2 | NONE | CLEARS FROM CURRENT CHARACTER TO RIGHT |
| | | | | EDGE OF THE WINDOW |
| 19 | &13 | DC3 | NONE | CLEARS FROM START OF WINDOW UP TO AND |
| | | | | INCLUDING CURRENT CHARACTER |
| 20 | &14 | DC4 | NONE | CLEARS FROM CURRENT CHARACTER TO END OF |
| | | | | WINDOW |
| 21 | &15 | NAK | NONE | TURNS OFF TEXT SCREEN (SEE ALSO CHR$(6))|
| 22 | &16 | SYN | 0 AND 1 | TURNS TRANSPARENT OPTION OFF AND ON |
| 23 | &17 | ETB | 0-3 | SET GRPAHICS PLOTTING MODE |
| 24 | &18 | CAN | NONE | CHANGE TO INVERSE CHARACTER DISPLAYING |
| 25 | &19 | EM | NINE PARAM. | DEFINES A CHARACTER (= SAME AS SYMBOL) |
| | | | EACH 0-255 | |
| 26 | &1A | SUB | FOUR PARAM. | DEFINES A TEXT WINDOW (=SAME AS WINDOW) |
| | | | 1-80, 1-80 | FROM LEFT, RIGHT, TOP TO BOTTOM |
| | | | 1-25, 1-25 | FROM LEFT, RIGHT, TOP TO BOTTOM |
| 27 | &1B | ESC | NONE | DOES NOTHING ON SCREEN (PRINTER SIGNAL) |
| 28 | &1C | FS | THREE PARAM. | SETS INK COLOUR TO FLASH BETWEEN TWO |
| | | | 0-15, 0-32 | INK NO, COLOUR 1, COLOUR 2 |
| | | | 0-32 | |
| 29 | &1D | GS | TWO PARAM. | SETS BORDER COLOUR TO FLASH BETWEEN TWO |
| | | | 0-31, 0-31 | COLOURS |
| 30 | &1E | RS | NONE | HOMES CURSOR TO TOP LEFT OF SCREEN |
| 31 | &1F | US | TWO PARAM. | MOVES CURSOR TO CELL SPECIFIED BY TWO |
| | | | 1-80, 1-25 | PARAMETERS (=SAME AS LOCATE) |
===============================================================================
</PRE>

==== <code>CINT (n)</code> ====

: Returns rounded up integer value of n between -32768 and 32767.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT CINT(3.8) - print 4
</pre>

==== <code>COPYCHR$ (st)</code> ====

: Copies character from current position in specified stream.

==== <code>COS (n)</code> ====

: Returns cosine of n in degrees or radians (se DEG and RAD)

==== <code>CREAL (n)</code> ====

: Converts integer n to real numeric variable.

==== <code>DEC$(n, format)</code> ====

: Retruns the decimal string representation of n, according to the specified format (see PRINT USING)

==== <code>DERR</code> ====

: Gives the most recent error code number returned by [[Amsdos]].

==== <code>EOF</code> ====

: Checks to see if end of specified file has been reached during input. Returns 0 (false) until the end of file, then -1 (true)

: This example reads a file from disc and print it out on screen. Like the "TYPE" command in CP/M or "|TYPE,file" of the UTOPIA-ROM.
<pre>
10 OPENIN "text.txt"
20 WHILE NOT EOF
30 LINE INPUT#9,a$
40 PRINT a$
50 WEND
60 CLOSEIN
</pre>

==== <code>ERR</code> ====

: Returns the error code number of the last error encountered.

==== <code>EXP (i)</code> ====

: Returns the result of calculating e to the power i.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT EXP(1) - prints 2.71828183
</pre>

==== <code>FIX (n)</code> ====

: Removes the fractional part of n (see INT)

==== <code>FRE (n/se)</code> ====

: Returns the amount of unused memory, irrespective of the nature or value of the dummy argument inside the bracket.

: Examples:

<pre>
PRINT FRE(o) or PRINT FRE("hello")
</pre>

==== <code>HEX$ (i1, i2)</code> ====

: Returns a string hexadecimal digit representation of i1 (0-65535). The number of hex digits in the string is given by i2 (0-15)

==== <code>HIMEM</code> ====

: Returns address of the highest memory address used by BASIC.

==== <code>INKEY (i)</code> ====
: Checks to see if key number i is being pressed.

<pre>
Value returned [SHIFT] [CTRL] Specified key
-1 ignored ignored up
0 up up down
32 down up down
128 up down down
160 down down down
</pre>

==== <code>INKEY$</code> ====

: Checkts the keyboard and returns the string character of the key pressed. The string character returned is normally assigned to a string variable. If no key pressed, a null string is returned.

==== <code>INP (add)</code> ====

: Returns value read from the I/O address add

==== <code>INSTR</code> ====

:INSTR ([startposition,]explored string, seeking string)
<blockquote>This function looks inside "explored string" after "seeking string" and return a number where the found string appear for the first time. Returns zero if not successfull. Startposition could be a figure between 1 and 255. </blockquote><pre>a$="ABCD":PRINT INTR(a$,"C") - returns with "3"</pre>

==== <code>INT (n)</code> ====

: As in FIX if n is positive; if n is negative, it rounds it down.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT INT(3.99), INT(-3.99) - prints 3 -4
</pre>

==== <code>JOY (i)</code> ====

: Returns bit-significant value from specified joystick. i = 0 or 1.

<pre>
Bit Value returned
0(up) 1
1(down) 2
2(left) 4
3(right) 8
4(fire 2) 16
5(fire 1) 32
</pre>

==== <code>LEFT$ (se, i)</code> ====

: Returns a substring of se. The substring begins at the left-most character of se and contains i characters.

: Example:

<pre>
A$="ABCDEFG":PRINT LEFT$(A$,3) - prints ABC
</pre>

==== <code>LEN (se)</code> ====

: Returns the number of characters in se (0 - 255)

==== <code>LOG (n)</code> ====

: Returns the natural logarithm (to base e) of n.

==== <code>LOG10 (n)</code> ====

: Returns the logarithm to base 10 of n.

==== <code>LOWER$ (se)</code> ====

: Returns a copy of se in which all alphabetical characters are converted to lower case (see also UPPER)

: Example

<pre>
PRINT LOWER$("A1B2c3") - print a1b2c3
</pre>

==== <code>MAX (list of n)</code> ====

: Returns the maximum value from the given list.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT MAX(3,8,25,1,2,9) - prints 25
</pre>

==== <code>MIN (list of n)</code> ====

: Returns the minimum value from the given list (see MAX)

==== <code>PEEK (add)</code> ====

: Returns the contents of the specified memory location (0-65535)

==== <code>PI</code> ====

: Returns value of PI (3.14159265)

==== <code>POS (#st)</code> ====

: Returns column number of print position relative to left edge of text window on stream st. st must be specified.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT POS(#0) - prints 1
</pre>

==== <code>REMAIN (i)</code> ====

: Returns count remaining in delay timer i (0-3) then disables it.
: For the reason that REMAIN is no normal command but a "function" it is necessary in case of a proper functionality to link the command.
: a example in combination with an interrupt delay timer 1:
<pre>
PRINT REMAIN(1)
</pre>
or to stop several/all interrupts at the same time...
<pre>
A=REMAIN(0)=REMAIN(1)=REMAIN(2)=REMAIN(3)
</pre>
: Hint: Take care of interrupts due to parallel working (the same cycle time) or if they are stopped with the BREAK key. Interrupts which were disabled for a certain time will be stored in buffer (for a maximum of 128 entries) and made up their task afterwards in the priorisation as declared.

==== <code>RIGHT$ (se,i)</code> ====

: Returns a substring of length i (0-255) characters from se, ending at the rightmost character of se.

: Example

<pre>
PRINT RIGHT$("ABCDEFG",3) - prints EFG
</pre>

==== <code>RND [(n)]</code> ====
: Generates the next random number in the current squence if n is positive or omitted. If n = 0, the random number generated will be the same as the last random number generated.

: Exampel for generating an integer random number between 1 and 1000
<pre>
10 A=INT((RND(1)*1000)+1)
20 PRINT A
30 GOTO 10
</pre>

: Exampel for generating a random number between a lower and higher border
<pre>
10 INPUT "Low border",low
20 INPUT "High border",high
30 A=INT(RND(1)*(high-low))+low
40 PRINT A
</pre>

==== <code>ROUND (n[,i1])</code> ====

: Rounds n to a number of decimal places or to the power of ten specified by i. If i is negative, the n is rounded to give an absolute integer with i zeros before the decimal point.
: Example:

<pre>
PRINT ROUND(1562.357,2):PRINT ROUND(1562.375,-2) - prints 1562.36 1600
</pre>

==== <code>SGN (n)</code> ====
: Returns 1 if n is positive, 0 if n = 0, -1 if n is negative.

==== <code>SIN (n)</code> ====
: Returns sine of n in degree or radian mode (see DEG and RAD)

==== <code>SPACE$(i)</code> ====

: Creates a string containing i spaces (0-255)

==== <code>SQ (channel)</code> ====
: Returns a bit significant integer showing state of the sound queue for specified channel where channel 1, 2, 3 = A, B, C.
<pre>
Bits 0,1 and 2 number of free entries in the queue
Bits 3,4 and 5 redezvous state at head of the queue
Bit 6 head of the queue is held
Bit 7 channel is currently active
</pre>

==== <code>SQR (n)</code> ====
: Returns the square root of n.

==== <code>STR$(n)</code> ====

: Returns the string representation of number n.
: Useful for converting a number to a string in case of string manipulation. E.g. after converting a figure to a string then the most left character holds the sign: a minus in case the figure is negative and a space in case the figure is positiv.
: Example:
<pre>
10 FIGURE=-1599
20 FIGURE$=STR$(FIGURE)
30 PRINT FIGURE$
-1599

10 FIGURE=1769
20 FIGURE$=STR$(FIGURE)
30 PRINT FIGURE$
1769
</pre>
: (there's a blank on the left-hand of the number "1769")
: If you want to add e.g. zero before the figure in case of a high score with fix digit-number then you're able to add zero(s) in front of a string instead of a figure.

==== <code>STRING$</code> ====

: Returns i copies of the string character specified by s.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT STRING$(3,"*") - prints ***
</pre>

==== <code>TAN (n)</code> ====

: Returns the tangent of n. The DEG and RAD commands can be used to force the result to either mode.

==== <code>TEST (x,y)</code> ====

: Moves the graphics cursor by x and y and returns the value of the ink at that position.

==== <code>TESTR (x,y)</code> ====

: Moves the graphics cursor by x and y relative to its current position and returns the value of ink at that position.

==== <code>TIME</code> ====
: Returns time elapsed since the computer was switched on or reset.
: One second = TIME/300.

==== <code>UNT (add)</code> ====

: Returns an integer(-32768 to 32767) which is the two's complement of add.

: Example:

<pre>
PRINT UNT(&FF66) - prints -154
</pre>

==== <code>UPPER$(se)</code> ====

: Gives copy of se with all alphabetic characters in upper case.

==== <code>VAL(se)</code> ====

:Returns the numeric value (including signs) of first numeric character(s) in se. Returns 0 if se starts with a non-number.
:Example:
<pre>PRINT VAL("-12.34x"),VAL("A-12") - prints -12.34 0
</pre>
:Exception: if <se> starts with "&" + character (and it's between "A" and "F") the whole character will be handled like a hexadezimal numeric character (...often used in DATA Loaders). The returning numeric value is a  signed integer (16-Bit Word).
<pre>PRINT VAL("&A") - returns a 10

PRINT VAL("&7FFF") - returns a 32767

PRINT VAL("&8000") - returns a -32768</pre>

==== <code>VPOS (#st)</code> ====
: Reports the current row (line) position of the text cursor relative to the top of the text windows of the specified stream.

==== <code>XPOS</code> ====

: Returns the current horizontal (x) position of the graphics cursor.

==== <code>YPOS</code> ====

: Returns the current vertical (y) position of the graphics cursor.

''(Please, fill in. Looks like a lot of work ;-) ...)''

== Error codes ==

* 1 '''Unexpected NEXT''' - <code>NEXT</code> encountered without matching <code>FOR</code>.
* 2 '''Syntax Error''' - Typing error or incorrect punctuation.
* 3 '''Unexpected RETURN''' - <code>RETURN</code> encountered when there was no active <code>GOSUB</code>.
* 4 '''DATA exhaused''' - Trying to <code>READ</code> data when data pointer has reached end of data.
* 5 '''Improper argument''' - The argument for a function is not legal (e.g. <code>PRINT SQR(-10)</code>).
* 6 '''Overflow''' - The computer cannot handle integers smaller than -32768 (signed) or larger than 65535 (unsigned) or floating point numbers greater than ±1.7E38.
* 7 '''Memory full''' - Not enough free RAM available to complete the operation. Program too big or control structures too deeply nested.
* 8 '''Line does not exist''' - Attempt to <code>RUN</code>, <code>GOTO</code> or <code>GOSUB</code> a non-existent line number.
* 9 '''Subscript out of range''' - Value of a subscript in an array is outside of range specified by <code>DIM</code> declaration or wrong number of dimensions supplied.
* 10 '''Array already dimensioned''' - Arrays can only be <code>DIM</code>ensioned once within a program.
* 11 '''Division by zero''' - Trying to divide a number by zero.
* 12 '''Invalid direct command''' - Using a statement as a direct command which is not allowed outside a program, e.g. <code>DEF FN</code>.
* 13 '''Type mismatch''' - Wrong data type encountered, string data instead of numeric value or vice versa.
* 14 '''String space full''' - String memory area is full.
* 15 '''String too long''' - String may not exceed 256 characters.
* 16 '''String expression too complex''' - A string expression needs to be broken down into smaller expressions.
* 17 '''Cannot CONTinue''' - <code>CONT</code> can only be used if program was stopped by [ESC] or a <code>STOP</code> in program - not after END. If the program is modified before issuing <code>CONT</code> you will also get this error.
* 18 '''Unknown user function''' - A <code>DEF FN</code> must be executed before calling an <code>FN</code> function.
* 19 '''RESUME missing''' - End of program has been reached while in error processing mode. Use <code>ON ERROR GOTO</code> before <code>RESUME</code>.
* 20 '''Unexpected RESUME''' - <code>RESUME</code> is only used in error processing mode, <code>ON ERROR GOTO</code> statement must be used first.
* 21 '''Direct Command found''' - A line without a line number has found while loading a file.
* 22 '''Operand missing''' - An incomplete expression has been found.
* 23 '''Line too long''' - The line contains too many statements.
* 24 '''EOF met''' - Trying to input data beyond end of data file.
* 25 '''FILE type error''' - Using a program file instead of a data file to read or write (or vice versa).
* 26 '''NEXT missing''' - The <code>NEXT</code> of a <code>FOR</code> ... <code>NEXT</code> loop is missing.
* 27 '''File already open''' - Trying to open an open file. Use <code>CLOSEIN</code> or <code>CLOSEOUT</code> first.
* 28 '''Unknown command''' - Given when an unknown command follows a <code>|</code>. e.g. <code>|DISC</code> on a CPC464 without AMSDOS installed.
* 29 '''WEND missing''' - The <code>WEND</code> part of the <code>WHILE</code> ... <code>WEND</code> loop is missing.
* 30 '''Unexpected WEND''' - <code>WEND</code> encountered without a corresponding active <code>WHILE</code>.
* 31 '''File not open''' - Attempting to read from or write to a file without <code>OPEN</code>ing it first.
* '''Unknown error''' - Executing <code>ERROR</code> command with any other legal error code number (up to 255).
== Other Basic Dialects available for the CPC ==

*[[BBC Basic]]
*[[C BASIC Compiler|CBASIC]]
*[[BASIC-E]]

== Web links ==

* [http://www.cpctech.org.uk/docs/bastech.html Technical information at the Unofficial Amstrad WWW Resource]
* [http://www.sean.co.uk/books/amstrad/bforbasic.shtm Locomotive Basic Tutorial by Sean McManus]
* [http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Category:Locomotive_Basic Code examples at Rosetta Code]

[[Category:Programming]]
[[Category:BASIC| ]]
[[Category:CPC Internal Components]]
[[Category:Operating System| ]]
[[Category:Software]]
[[Category:Programming software| ]]

Locomotive BASIC

2011-06-10T13:18:34Z

Hal 6128:

Locomotive BASIC

2011-06-10T13:06:38Z

Hal 6128:

Locomotive BASIC

2011-06-10T12:35:33Z

Hal 6128:

Locomotive BASIC

2011-06-10T12:30:12Z

Hal 6128: /* INSTR */

Multiplan

2011-06-01T14:25:04Z

Hal 6128:

'''MULTIPLAN''' is a spreadsheet application by [[Microsoft]]. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical [[CP/M]] application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

== '''HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS''' ==

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default). Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg. [[Vortex Expansions RAM card|VORTEX]], or other, similar additional hardware). A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work. All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

== '''a MULTIPLAN description in short ''' ==

 

=== [[Image:Row Column Multiplan.png|left|400px|picture 1 - "default Row and Column scheme of Multiplan"]]'''THE SCREEN LAYOUT''' ===

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (see picture 1) and is about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text. On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

 

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.). Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

 

On the top level of the screen (about 80 percent) you will see the table with its row and column indicators. The maximum by default is 7 columns and 19 rows. The first area is highlighted. Changing the area could be done by pressing the cursor keys. There are two command lines underneath which could be highlighted by the Tab key and activated with Enter key. The next two lins show the command status and underneath on the left side the actual highlighted area, in the middle free space and on the right side the name of the file.

=== '''TABLE LAYOUT AND COMMANDS''' ===

 ...

== Sources ==

#[[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN]] by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
#[[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC]] by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
#[[MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format]], Original User Manual, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985

[[Category:Applications]]

Multiplan

2011-06-01T14:14:03Z

Hal 6128:

'''MULTIPLAN''' is a spreadsheet application by [[Microsoft]]. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical [[CP/M]] application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

 '''HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS'''

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default). Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg. [[Vortex Expansions RAM card|VORTEX]], or other, similar additional hardware). A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work. All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

 

 

[[Image:Row Column Multiplan.png|left|400px|picture 1 - "default Row and Column scheme of Multiplan"]]

 '''THE SCREEN LAYOUT'''

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (see picture 1) and is about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text. On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

 

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.). Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

On the top level of the screen (about 80 percent) you will see the table with its row and column indicators. The maximum by default is 7 columns and 19 rows. The first area is highlighted. Changing the area could be done by pressing the cursor keys. There are two command lines underneath which could be highlighted by the Tab key and activated with Enter key. The next two lins show the command status and underneath on the left side the actual highlighted area, in the middle free space and on the right side the name of the file.

 ...

== Sources ==

#[[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN]] by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
#[[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC]] by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
#[[MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format]], Original User Manual, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985

[[Category:Applications]]

Multiplan

2011-06-01T14:01:36Z

Hal 6128:

'''MULTIPLAN''' is a spreadsheet application by [[Microsoft]]. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical [[CP/M]] application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

 '''HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS'''

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default). Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg. [[Vortex Expansions RAM card|VORTEX]], or other, similar additional hardware). A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work. All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

[[Image:Row Column Multiplan.png|left|400px|picture 1 - "default Row and Column scheme of Multiplan"]]

 '''THE SCREEN LAYOUT'''

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (see picture 1) and is about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text. On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.). Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

 

...

== Sources ==

#[[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN]] by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
#[[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC]] by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
#[[MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format]], Original User Manual, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985

[[Category:Applications]]

Multiplan

2011-06-01T14:00:41Z

Hal 6128:

'''MULTIPLAN''' is a spreadsheet application by [[Microsoft]]. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical [[CP/M]] application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

'''HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS'''

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default). Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg. [[Vortex Expansions RAM card|VORTEX]], or other, similar additional hardware). A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work. All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

[[Image:Row_Column_Multiplan.png|left|400px|picture 1 - "default Row and Column scheme of Multiplan"]]

'''THE SCREEN LAYOUT'''

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (see picture 1) and is about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text. On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.). Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

...

== Sources ==

#[[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN]] by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
#[[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC]] by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
#[[MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format]], Original User Manual, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985

[[Category:Applications]]

Multiplan

2011-06-01T13:51:19Z

Hal 6128:

'''MULTIPLAN''' is a spreadsheet application by [[Microsoft]]. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical [[CP/M]] application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default).
Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg. [[Vortex Expansions RAM card|VORTEX]], or other, similar additional hardware).
A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work.
All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (see picture 1) and is about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text. On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.).
Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

== Sources ==
# [[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN]] by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
# [[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC]] by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
# [[MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format]], Original User Manual, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985

[[Category:Applications]]

File:Row Column Multiplan.png

2011-06-01T13:49:34Z

Hal 6128:

User:Hal 6128

2011-03-27T21:29:49Z

Hal 6128: Created page with "Just a CPC user and a real fan since 1985."

Just a CPC user and a real fan since 1985.

Microsoft

2011-03-13T19:11:45Z

Hal 6128:

Microsoft

2011-03-13T19:08:52Z

Hal 6128:

[[Image:Microsoft Amstrad Logo.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]

== Releases for CPC [[Image:Microsoft_Logo_(2)_small.jpg|thumb|right|200px]] ==

*[[MBASIC Compiler]]
*[[MBASIC Interpreter]]
*[[MS COBOL Compiler]]
*[[MS FORTRAN Compiler]]
*[[MS MACRO]]
*[[Multiplan]]

[[Category:CPC_related_companies]]

File:Microsoft Logo (2) small.jpg

2011-03-13T19:05:31Z

Hal 6128: Microsoft Logo (2) small

Microsoft Logo (2) small

File:Microsoft Logo.jpg

2011-03-13T19:01:22Z

Hal 6128:

Microsoft Logo (2)

File:Microsoft Logo.jpg

2011-03-13T18:56:21Z

Hal 6128: Microsoft Logo (29

Microsoft Logo (29

Multiplan

2011-03-12T23:18:08Z

Hal 6128: Created page with "MULTIPLAN is a spreadsheet application by Microsoft. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with Vis..."

MULTIPLAN is a spreadsheet application by Microsoft. It was called at former times (1983) one of the most powerful and user-friendly "electronic worksheets" and together with VisiCalc (from Software Arts), a typical CP / M application of its time (late seventies / early eighties).

The application runs under CP/M with at least one floppy disk drive and a memory of 128 kByte, better with at least 62 Kbytes TPA (free space available under a patched CP/M2.2 or - of course - plus / 3), and a monitor 80 characters per line (which is included by the purchased standard monitors GT & GTM - they managed this resolution by default).
Multiplan runs on all CPCs of the old (and new) generation, provided the computers 464 and 664 had a memory expansion (eg VORTEX, or other, similar additional hardware).
A printer could be accessed via the Centronics interface. The operation of a second floppy drive was recommended in terms of a more comfortable work.
All files of the original Multiplan version being used on the usual 170 kByte 135 kByte floppy (without operating system).

The maximum size of a single table can theoretically result in 16,065 fields from an array of up to 255 rows and 63 columns (about 1.2 MByte deposited without an operating system / just numbers either formula nor text). On a CPC with 128 kbyte memory it can be filled thus 10% or 1500 fields. Here, however, can only be a maximum of eight windows (contiguous sections of a table) be used. Multiple worksheets in a table can be combined to create a connection.

In the same way like his successor, Windows-Excel, it can be entered directly in the fields with text, values or formulas. The field itself can be selected via a row-column coordinate system. The formats of the columns can be changed in a very limited basis (due to text-only presentation). Cells can be assigned names. Areas can be protected against overwriting. The application provides menus for selecting functions or assistance (eg, sorting, iteration, mathematical, numerical, logical functions such as SIN, COS, LN, LOG, MAX, MIN, STDEV, AND, OR, IF / THEN, etc.).
Data exchange with other programs (eg, the former WordStar) was possible.

(Sources:
1. "[Schneider CPC: Erfolg mit MULTIPLAN / Success with MULTIPLAN[http://cpcwiki.eu/index.php?title=Schneider_CPC:_Erfolg_mit_MULTIPLAN&action=edit&redlink=1]]" by Thorsten Ritter, Publisher: Sybex, 1986
2. "[MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC / MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC[http://cpcwiki.eu/index.php?title=Multiplan_f%C3%BCr_den_Schneider_CPC&action=edit&redlink=1]]" by Dr. Peter Albrecht, Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
3. "MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN für den Schneider CPC 464 - 3 Zoll Schneider Format / MICROSOFT MULTIPLAN for the Schneider CPC 464 - 3 inch Disk Format", Original User Manual Publisher: Markt & Technik, 1985
)